CONCEPTS
Adam’s “Midnight Appointments”: Adams used his authority under the Judiciary Act of 1801 to pack the courts with Federalist judicial appointments during the final two months and up to the last days of his administration.
Assembly Line: A technique of industrial production used by Henry Ford that involved each worker performing one step of the operation that led to increased efficiency.
Clipper Ships: A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century that had three or more masts and a square rig. The boom years of the Clipper Ship Era began in 1843 as a result of the growing demand for a more rapid delivery of tea from China.
First Bank of the United States: The First Bank was a bank chartered by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. The charter was set for a 20-year expiration date. The Bank was created to handle the financial needs and requirements of the central government of the newly formed United States, which had previously been thirteen individual states with their own banks, currencies, financial institutions, and policies.
Interchangeable Parts: The concept of interchangeability was crucial to the introduction of the assembly line at the beginning of the 20th century, and has become a ubiquitous element of modern manufacturing. The system for producing interchangeable parts is alternately called The American system of manufacturing because it was first most fully developed in the U.S. Eli Whitney first used in riffle assembly.
Lowell System: A system in which all aspects of textile manufacture are able to be completed in the same factory. This system required a larger capital investment than the previous small mills. The invention of the power loom greatly enhanced this process.
Second Bank of the United States: This was the first step in the plan of the American System under President Monroe. Its purpose was to take on large scale financing and establish a strong national currency.
Standard Oil: Company which at one point controlled over 90 percent of America’s oil-refining industry and was owned by John D. Rockefeller.
Transatlantic Cable: July 27, 1866, Trans-Atlantic telegraph Cable connects Old World to New
U.S. Steel Corporation: J. P. Morgan founded U.S. Steel in 1901 by combining Carnegie Steel Company with Federal Steel Company and National Steel Company. At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U.S. Steel in 1911, but that effort ultimately failed.
Utopian Communities: Arose in 1830’s predominantly in upstate NY. Amid political activism and reform movement of the day, many chose to “escape”. Shakers – abolish traditional family in favor of communal fellowship. Oneida Community – sexual freedom. New Harmony – manufacturing community w/out poverty or unemployment. Most successful = Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons).
Washington’s Farewell Address: After being demonized by the press, realizing he was sick of politics, and wanting to return to farm life, Washington refused his 3rd term as president. In his Farewell Address, he argued for Americans to distance themselves from the political affairs in Europe, but not adopt a policy of isolationism.
Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation: A formal announcement issued by United States President George Washington on April 22, 1793, declaring the nation neutral in the conflict between France and Great Britain. It threatened legal proceedings against any American providing assistance to warring countries. The Proclamation led to the Neutrality Act of 1794.
Yellow Journalism: A type of journalism in which the author uses flashy headlines of little substance to attract attention.
EVENTS
Atlanta Exposition/Compromise: 1895, Booker T. Washington gave a speech at the Cotton States Exposition in Atlanta on racial accommodation and urging blacks to focus on economic improvement and self-reliance, as opposed to political and civil rights.
Battle of New Orleans: The most well-known victory of Andrew Jackson in which he defeated a British-Indian alliance with the odds against him. It greatly boosted morale, which was not at its best during the War of 1812.
Bleeding Kansas: The civil war that occurred in Kansas as pro-slave and abolitionists competed for votes.
Boston Massacre: A British soldier was denied a job in 1770. He called his friends, the situation got out of hand, and a small riot ensued. The British soldiers fired into the crowd, killing 5, the first of which was Crispus Attucks. This event became infamous and further inflamed tensions between the colonists and the British.
Boston Tea Party: In protest of the Tea Act, a group of colonists disguised as Indians boarded a British ship and emptied 10,000 pounds worth of tea into Boston Harbor. This act was emulated in other colonies, but the one in Boston had the greatest effect on the British, and led to the implementation of the Intolerable Acts.
Boxer Rebellion: Beginning in 1898, groups of peasants in northern China began to band together into a secret society known as I-ho ch'üan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"), called the "Boxers" by Western press. By 1900, the Boxers murdered thousands of foreigners, especially missionaries, in an attempt to rid China of all foreign influence. President McKinley sent 5,000 troops to help quell the rebellion.
British Burn Washington, D.C.: The Burning of Washington was a battle that took place on August 24, 1814, during the War of 1812. The British Army occupied Washington, D.C. and set fire to many public buildings following the American defeat at the Battle of Bladensburg. The facilities of the U.S. government, including the White House and U.S. Capitol, were largely destroyed.
Chesapeake Affair: An international diplomatic incident that occurred during the Civil War. On December 7, 1863 Confederate sympathizers an American ship off the coast of Cape Cod. American forces violated British sovereignty by trying to arrest the captures in Nova Scotian waters, which further escalated the affair. The incident briefly threatened to bring Great Britain into the war against the North.
Constitutional Convention of 1787: Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution.
Credit Mobilier Scandal: A scandal in which several Republican stockholders created a dummy company, Credit Mobilier, as a way of diverting funds for the building of railroad. When the scandal broke in 1872, it ruined Vice President Colfax and led to the censure of two senators.
“Cross of Gold” Speech: Delivered by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago on July 8, 1896. Following the Coinage Act (1873), the United States abandoned its policy of bimetallism and began to operate a de facto gold standard. In 1896, the Democratic Party wanted to standardize the value of the dollar to silver and opposed a monometallic gold standard.
Era of Good Feelings: A term used to refer to the presidency of James Monroe (1817-1823) in which the Jeffersonian Republicans enjoyed an almost nonpartisan rule.
Federalist Papers: Written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, this series of essays defended the Constitution. It opposed the theory of Montesquieu that a republican government only works well in small countries, arguing that the best way to control political factions was to “extend the sphere of government”, making great size an advantage to a republican government.
Filipino Insurrection: During the Spanish-American War, President McKinley sent troops to the Spanish held Philippines. The Filipino’s initially welcomed the Americans and fought against the Spanish, but after the war when the Americans didn’t leave, the Filipino’s rebelled. Despite heavy causalities on both sides, the rebellion failed. The Philippines remained a US territory until 1946
Fisk – Gould Scandal: Also known as Black Friday, September 24, 1869. It was a financial panic in the United States caused by two speculators’ efforts to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange. It was one of several scandals that rocked the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant.
French and Indian War: An extended conflict between England and France (with Spain often allied with France) that extended across the globe. The Seven Years’ War in America was known as the French and Indian War. It ended with the British victorious at the Treaty of Paris in 1763. This war strengthened the unity among the colonies.
German and Irish Immigration: Some Irish had come to America in earlier times but the Irish Potato Famine of 1845-49 caused first major influx of Irish immigrants, who were too poor to travel inland and buy land, so stay in cities. Largest numbers settled in NY and they were absorbed in the large city, but those that went to Boston were unwelcome. Germans had begun arriving when William Penn established PA, but larger numbers came in the 1840’s & 1850’s. Germans formed agricultural communities, rather than remaining in the cities. They kept their cultural and religious practices.
Gold Rush in California: Sutter’s Mill was the location in California where gold was first discovered by James Marshall in 1848. The people who came in search of gold were called “49ers”. Eighty percent were American, 13% Mexican/Latin American and the rest from Europe and Asia. “Boom towns” became “ghost towns” when gold dried up. Animosity toward Chinese was lasting effect.
Harrison at Tippecanoe Creek: William Henry Harrison of the United States led 1000 men to Tippecanoe, where Tecumseh and his men were staying in November 1811. The following battle claimed 150 casualties on both sides. Harrison claimed victory, but it could hardly be called that. Tecumseh’s followers then began to attack surrounding American settlements.
Hartford Convention: Federalist representatives from the five New England states met to discuss their opposition to the War of 1812. They insisted on a policy of nullification, asserting that state governments could intervene if they deemed an act of the federal government unconstitutional. The Convention was ignored, however, when news of peace arrived from Britain before the Convention could issue a formal statement.
Haymarket Square Riot: A protest against police violence in Chicago ended violently as a bomb was thrown, killing several police officers, which prompted the police to fire into the crowd. This led to the collapse of the Knights of Labor, as company owners drew up blacklists and reinstated the ten hour day.
Homestead Strike: A strike in the Carnegie Steel Company. Carnegie and his chairman Henry C. Frick decided to break the union by lowering wages and sending a private army to quell the armed workers. The most powerful union of the AFL was defeated.
Indian Removal: Indian Removal Act: Passed under President Jackson, this act set aside funds for the relocation (by force, if necessary) of Indians.
King George’s War: Again consisting of the English versus the French, King George’s War was fought primarily in America. The war ended in a stalemate, but it was the first war in history in which the conclusive battle was fought on American soil.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates: Public debates between Abraham Lincoln (anti-slave) and Stephen Douglas (pro-slave) during the 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign regarding slavery.
Maysville Road Veto: This bill was vetoed by President Andrew Jackson, who claimed that internal improvements such as these should be paid for by the states. This was one of his most unexpected actions because his supporters expected him to provide federal funding for internal improvements. The bill would have created a National Road in Kentucky.
Mexican-American War: A war beginning in 1846 which was provoked by President Polk after Mexico refused his offer to buy California and New Mexico. Polk assumed control of military strategy during the War, which the United States won. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Pullman Strike: A strike against the tyrannical rule of George Pullman in his self-contained community built around his railroad company. The strikers appointed Eugene Debs as the head of the strike, and it grew to have participation nationwide. It was quelled when the army intervened and arrested the strike leaders.
Queen Anne’s War: Part of what is also known as the War of Spanish Succession, Queen Anne’s war pitted England and France (allied with the Spanish) against each other. Overall, Britain was victorious, and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) forced the Spanish to yield exclusive trading rights to their colonies to the British.
Reform Movements: Progressive Era: A period of time in the United States from 1900 to 1917 in which a variety of reform movements took place.
WCTU: Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Led by Frances Willard, this was the largest organization of women in the world at the time, and its members preached temperance and worked to reform the prison system, eliminate wages, and end prostitution.
Social Gospel: Initiated by Washington Gladden, it was a movement in which churches began to contend with pressing social problems, working towards civil service reform and the end of child labor. Women were also active in the movement.
Charles Finney: Preached a doctrine of “perfectionism”, which held that it was possible for all Christians to live by God’s will and convert the whole world, creating a perfect moral and religious community. He was president of Oberlin College, which was the most liberal college of the time.
Florence Kelley: A social reformer who helped to direct the support of the settlement home movement after visiting Hull House. She also helped to create the New York Child Labor Committee and the U.S. Children’s Bureau.
Seneca Falls Convention: Held in New York in 1848, this was the first convention for women’s rights.
Seward’s Purchase of Alaska: Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska, “Sewards’ Icebox”, from the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million.
Shay’s Rebellion: Led by Revolutionary officer Daniel Shays in Pelham, Massachusetts (1796), a group of farmers protested the extremely high taxes that were being imposed by the merchant-dominated Massachusetts legislature. The rebellion ended when a Massachusetts militia crushed the Shaysites. The farmers armed themselves and marched on Northampton court. Similar conflicts occurred in other colonies.
Sherman’s March through Georgia: A violent and destructive crusade which included the burning of Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman wanted to inflict such horrors that the South would not consider war again.
Sioux Wars: A series of conflicts between the United States and various subgroups of the Sioux people that occurred in the latter half of the 19th century. Wounded Knee was a well-known massacre in 1890 by Indians partially in response to fear of the Ghost Dance. Fort Laramie Treaty was signed in 1868 after Sioux Indians burned several American forts which guaranteed the Sioux land and hunting rights in South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana.
South Carolina Exposition and Protest: A defense of the doctrine of nullification written by John C. Calhoun anonymously. The nullification doctrine held that a state had the rights to not enforce a federal law if they deemed it necessary.
South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification: This document declared the Tariff of 1828 and 1832 null and void within the state borders of South Carolina. It began the Nullification Crisis. Passed by a state convention on November 24, 1832, it led, on December 10, to President Andrew Jackson's Force Bill that threatened to use troops to enforce the tariffs. In the face of the military threat, and following a Congressional revision of the tariff, South Carolina repealed the ordinance.
Spanish-American War: A popular conflict sparked by the destruction of the USS Maine that was swiftly concluded as an American victory. As a result, Cuba was freed from Spain and America conquered much of the Philippines.
Trail of Tears: The march of the last of the resisting Cherokees from George to Oklahoma in 1836. They were escorted by a 7,000-man army, and one quarter of the 16,000 Indians perished along the way.
Tripoli War: Also known as the Barbary Coast War (1801–1805), was the first of two wars fought between the United States and the North African Berber Muslim states known collectively as the Barbary States. The war stemmed from the Barbary pirates’ attacks upon American merchant shipping in an attempt to extort ransom for the lives of captured sailors, and ultimately tribute from the United States to avoid further attacks.
USS Maine: Maine had been sent to Havana, Cuba to protect U.S. interests during the Cuban revolt against Spain. On the evening of 15 February 1898, she suddenly exploded, and swiftly sank, killing nearly three quarters of her crew. Though then, as now, the cause and responsibility for her sinking were unclear; popular opinion in the U.S. blamed Spain, and the sinking (popularized in the phrase “Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!”) was one of the precipitating events of the Spanish–American War.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin Published: Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, this was the most successful American novel of the mid-nineteenth century. It consisted of vivid details of slavery from firsthand accounts.
Undeclared Naval War with France: (Quasi-War) An undeclared naval battle between the United States and France that lasted from 1797 to 1800.
Union Pacific and Central Pacific/Transcontinental Line: The world's First Transcontinental Railroad was built between 1863 and 1869 to join the eastern and western halves of the United States. Both companies were federally chartered by Congress because of the belief that America’s economic future lay in trade with Asia across the Pacific Ocean. Union Pacific laid track westward from Omaha, Central Pacific laid track eastward from California.
Whiskey Rebellion: A rebellion of Pennsylvania farmers over the tax placed on the distillation of whiskey. Those who rebelled argued the implementation of a tax on such a practice was against the principles of the Revolution (large landowners should be taxed for revenue, not small farmers). The rebellion became somewhat violent when the rebels attempted to seize tax collectors, and several were killed. President Washington responded by sending 13,000 soldiers in an occupation of west Pennsylvania. The rebellion quickly died down at this dramatic response, which demonstrated the federal government’s power and dedication to preserve the Union.
XYZ Affair: Rising tensions between the U.S. and France led France to adopt an aggressive naval policy to the U.S., seizing hundreds of American ships. President Adams sent delegates to France to negotiate a truce, but the French demanded a bribe. This correspondence was released to the public, with the names of the French negotiators replaced with the letters X, Y, and Z. This caused an uproar of anti-French sentiment, and the U.S. prepared for war, tripling the size of its army. War was avoided, however, when Britain defeated France near Egypt.
PEOPLE (Individuals & Groups)
John Adams: A Federalist, he served as the second president of the United States. He attempted to conduct his presidency in the manner that George Washington had before him. Against the will of the Federalists in Congress, he made peace with the French, which he considered one of his greatest accomplishments.
John Quincy Adams: Elected president in 1824 by the House of Representatives, he accomplished little during his presidency. However, he did succeed in funding an extension of the National Road. He served one term, as the general public greatly favored Andrew Jackson, even during his presidency.
Jane Addams: One of the leaders of the settlement house movement, she founded Hull House in Chicago after graduating from Rockford College.
American Anti-Slavery Society: An anti-slavery movement which condemned slavery as sinful and demanded its immediate abolition. Its founder, William Garrison, would not settle for compromise and demanded social equality for freed blacks.
American Federation of Labor: A Union formed in 1886 that organized skilled workers. It accepted the wage system (unlike the Knights) and sought shorter hours and better conditions. It did not resort to strikes as often as the Knights of Labor.
American Protective Association: The APA was founded 13 March 1887 by Attorney Henry F. Bowers in Iowa. The APA's goals included restricting Catholic immigration, making ability to speak English a prerequisite to American citizenship, removing Catholic teachers from public schools and banning Catholics from public offices.
Susan B. Anthony: (February 15, 1820 – March 13, 1906) was a prominent American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the 19th century women's rights movement to introduce women's suffrage into the United States. She was co-founder of the first Women's Temperance Movement with Elizabeth Cady Stanton as President.
Anti-masonic Party: Formed in 1828, it was the first third party in American history. It was founded as a single-issue party aspiring to become a major party. It introduced important innovations to American politics, such as nominating conventions and the adoption of party platforms.
Chester Arthur: Served as the 21st President of the United States (1881–1885). Arthur was a member of the Republican Party and worked as a lawyer before becoming the 20th Vice President under James Garfield. Garfield was mortally wounded by Charles J. Guiteau on July 2, 1881, at which time Arthur was sworn in as president, serving until March 4, 1885.
Elizabeth Blackwell: The first female doctor in the United States. She became active in the anti-slavery movement, as did her brother Henry Brown Blackwell, and was prominent in the emerging women's rights movement.
John Brown: An aggressive anti-slavery man who played a major role in Bleeding Kansas and died during his failed raid in the South.
William Jennings Bryan: The Democratic nominee in the election of 1896 who was defeated by William McKinley. His slogan reflected populist views and he promoted silver.
James Buchanan: The 15th President of the United States (1857-1861). He is the only president from Pennsylvania, the only president who remained a life-long bachelor.
Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce: Leader of the Nez Perce Indians, who were forced to move off their land and proceeded to fight U.S. troops until they were captured.
Civil Service Commission: Established by the Pendleton Civil Service Act, it oversaw appointments to government positions based on merit, ending the spoils system that currently existed.
Committees of Correspondence: Groups created by Americans to encourage the sharing of information (primarily British actions) and cooperation among colonies. The first of these was created by the Virginia House of Burgesses.
Coxey’s Army: During the Depression of 1893, populist Jacob Coxey gathered an army of 600 and marched to Washington, DC to demand a public works program. Police clubbed the army and arrested its leaders on arrival.
Eugene V. Debs: Leader of the Pullman Strike and the American Railway Union (whose strike was recently victorious over the Northern rail line).
Thomas Alva Edison: The inventor of the incandescent light bulb.
Emerson and Thoreau: Ralph Waldo Emerson was an immensely popular author and speaker. His most famous speech was “The American Scholar”, which carried the message of cultural self-sufficiency. He encouraged American writers to find inspiration in ordinary life. Henry David Thoreau was a proponent of Transcendentalism to the extreme, he supported the idea of individualism so much that he moved into a cabin at Walden Pond, and he was the author of the book Walden.
Millard Fillmore: The 13th President of the United States (1850–1853) and the last member of the Whig Party to hold the office of president. As Zachary Taylor's Vice President, he assumed the presidency after Taylor's death. Fillmore opposed the proposal to keep slavery out of the territories annexed during the Mexican–American War (to appease the South), and so supported the Compromise of 1850, which he signed, including the Fugitive Slave Act which was part of the compromise.
1st Continental Congress: A meeting of delegates in Philadelphia in 1774, including Samuel and John Adams, George Washington, and Patrick Henry. The general feeling of the group was to avoid war and to use economic coercion. It passed Declaration and Reserves, arguing that the British were violating colonial rights and calling for nonimportation practices. It also called for Committees of Observation and Safety, which took over the functions of a local government (organized militia, oversaw extralegal courts, formed colonial conventions).
Free-Soil Party: Members of a political party that promoted the adjustment of abolitionist ideals to practical politics.
Robert Fulton: The inventor of the steamboat. This was a major part of the Transportation Revolution.
James Garfield: The 20th President of the United States, after completing nine consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives; he is the only incumbent Representative in Congress to be elected President. Garfield's presidency lasted just 200 days—from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881, as a result of being shot by assassin Charles J. Guiteau on July 2, 1881.
Edmund Genet: The French ambassador who came to America in 1793 seeking to win American involvement in France’s war with Britain. He authorized American privateering raids against the British, and many Americans sympathized with him (they already hated the British). Despite his efforts, President Washington declared that the U.S. would be taking a neutral stance. Genet then challenged the president to a debate on his decision, which outraged Washington, and cost Jefferson his position in the cabinet.
George III (King): King of Great Britain during the American Revolution.
Samuel Gompers: Founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL), and served as that organization's president from 1886 to 1894 and from 1895 until his death in 1924.
The Grange Movement: A national organization of farm owners who blamed railroad corporations, large manufacturers, and banks for their poor economic situation.
Ulysses S. Grant: The most prominent Union general of the Civil War, named general-in-chief of all Union forces in 1864.
Greenback Party: An American political party with an anti-monopoly ideology that was active between 1874 and 1884. Its name referred to paper money, or "greenbacks," that had been issued during the American Civil War and afterward. The party opposed the shift from paper money back to a coin-based monetary system because it believed that privately owned banks and corporations would then reacquire the power to define the value of products and labor. It was established as a political party whose members were primarily farmers financially hurt by the Panic of 1873.
Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President of the United States (1889–1893). Harrison was the grandson of President William Henry Harrison.
William Henry Harrison: A presidential candidate in 1840 nominated by the Whigs who was a military hero like Jackson, having won the Battle of Tippecanoe. He was victorious against his opponent, Martin Van Buren, who was disliked by the general public. However, Harrison died of pneumonia one month after his inauguration, allowing John Tyler to take the presidency.
Rutherford B. Hayes: A Republican who gained the presidency in 1876 after Republicans challenged the vote totals of Samuel Tilden (Democrat), who had 200,000 more popular votes.
William Randolph Hearst: An American newspaper magnate and leading newspaper publisher. Hearst created a chain that numbered nearly 30 papers in major American cities at its peak.
Andrew Jackson: A military commander in the South, he is known for his attacks against the Indians. His most well known victory was at the Battle of New Orleans. A Democratic Republican, he was elected President in 1828
Thomas Jefferson: The third president of the United States, he envisioned the United States would become an “agrarian republic”, consisting of communities of small farmers. He was concerned for the fate of Indians and instituted the Embargo Act.
Andrew Johnson: Succeeded the presidency after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. He believed reconstruction was the responsibility of the executive branch and granted amnesty and restoration of property to southerners who pledged loyalty to the Union. He was later almost impeached.
Knights of Labor: A labor union founded in 1869 which believed that “producing classes” need to be freed from their lives of poverty to create a genuinely democratic society. The union withered away after the Haymarket Square Riot.
Know-Nothings (American) Party: A political party that was anti-immigrant. Its members frequently would refuse to state their political views, hence the name of the party.
Ku Klux Klan: A group that terrorized blacks in the South during the Reconstruction era, founded in 1866 by Confederate veterans.
Liberty Party: A political party that had abolition as its main goal. Its first presidential candidate was James G. Birney.
Abraham Lincoln: The President of the United States during the Civil War.
Alfred Thayer Mahan: President of the Rhode Island Naval War College and author of The Influence of Sea Power upon American History, he supported an imperialist foreign policy.
Horace Mann: Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval from modernizers, especially in his Whig Party, for building public schools.
William McKinley: Defeated William Jennings Bryan in the election of 1896 and promoted the Open Door Policy.
James Monroe: The fifth president of the United States, elected in 1816, and he served two terms. He put the American System into effect and is the namesake of the Monroe Doctrine.
National Labor Union: The first national labor federation in the United States. Founded in 1866 and dissolved in 1873, it paved the way for other organizations, such as the Knights of Labor and the AFL. he new organization favored arbitration over strikes and called for the creation of a national labor party as an alternative to the two existing parties.
Thomas Paine: Author of Common Sense, the most influential book of the Revolutionary Era. Its most important effect was the shape popular thinking in favor of independence from England. Paine placed most of the blame for the colonists’ oppression on King George III. This book sold over 100,000 copies.
Franklin Pierce: The 14th President of the United States (1853-1857) and is the only President from New Hampshire. Pierce was a Democrat and a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies). The Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas-Nebraska Act were "the two great calamities of the Franklin Pierce administration.... Both brought down an avalanche of public criticism."
James Polk: The 11th President of the United States (1845–1849). Polk was the surprise ("dark horse") candidate for president in 1844, defeating Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party by promising to annex Texas. Polk led the nation to a sweeping victory in the Mexican-American War, which gave the United States most of its present Southwest.
Populist Party/Platform: A third party based on reform movements and primarily comprised of farmers.
Joseph Pulitzer: A Hungarian-American newspaper publisher of the St. Louis Post Dispatch and the New York World. In the 1890s the fierce competition between his World and William R. Hearst's New York Journal introduced yellow journalism and opened the way to mass circulation newspapers that depended on advertising revenue and appealed to the reader with multiple forms of news, entertainment and advertising. Today he is best known for posthumously establishing the Pulitzer Prizes.
Queen Liliuokalani: The last monarch and only queen regnant of the Kingdom of Hawaii; ruled from 1891 - 1893. The Queen was deposed on 17 January 1893 and temporarily relinquished her throne to "the superior military forces of the United States".
Republican Party: A political party founded in 1854 consisting of Whigs, northern Democrats, and Know-Nothings. The party advocated expansion and was anti-slavery. Its first presidential candidate was John C. Fremont.
Rough Riders: The name bestowed on the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, one of three such regiments raised in 1898 for the Spanish-American War. Theodore Roosevelt was second in command, but when Colonel Wood became commander of the 1st Cavalry Brigade (1st U.S. Cavalry, 106th U.S. Cavalry, and 1st U.S.V. Cavalry) the Rough Riders then became "Roosevelt's Rough Riders".
2nd Continental Congress: A meeting in Philadelphia in 1775 with representatives from all colonies except Georgia (heavily dependent on British subsidies because it was a new colony, but later joined). Because the common people had an enthusiasm for war, the meeting focused primarily on defense. Because it lacked the funds to raise an army, it designated the colonial forces currently at Boston as the Continental Army, and it was decided unanimously that George Washington was to command the army. The congress also sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III, which was later rejected. It appointed commissioners to negotiate with the Indians to keep them out of the conflict and reinstated Benjamin Franklin as postmaster general (had been fired for leaking a letter from Governor Hutchinson).
Shakers: Founded by Ann Lee in 1774, this group advocated the abolishment of the traditional family in favor of a group of people joined in equal fellowship where sex and marriage was prohibited.
Sons of Liberty: Formed in response to the Stamp Act, these were organizations that engaged in moderate forms of protest, such as circulating pamphlets and only turned to crowds as a last resort. These groups had limited political goals in comparison to American radicals.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: (11/12/1815 – 10/26/1902) was an American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early woman's movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movements in the United States.
Zachary Taylor: A prominent and successful general during the Mexican-American War who went on to become president in the election of 1848.
Temperance Societies: advocated the elimination of the consumption of alcohol.
· Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Led by Frances Willard, this was the largest organization of women in the world at the time, and its members preached temperance and worked to reform the prison system, eliminate wages, and end prostitution.
· Anti-Saloon League - under the leadership of Wayne Wheeler stressed political results and utilized pressure politics. It did not demand that politicians change their drinking habits, only their votes in the legislature.
· American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was a society established on February 13, 1826 in Boston, MA. Within five years there were 2,220 local chapters in the U.S. with 170,000 members who had taken a pledge to abstain from drinking distilled beverages. Within ten years, there were over 8,000 local groups and more than 1,500,000 members who had taken the pledge.
Frederick Jackson Turner: An influential American historian in the early 20th century. He is best known for his book, The Significance of the Frontier in American History.
Nat Turner: An intelligent priest that led an uprising of slaves in Virginia in 1831 that resulted in the death of 55 whites before put to an end. The rebellion struck fear into the hearts of many slave-owners.
“Boss” Tweed: Democratic Party boss William Tweed which stole tens of millions of dollars from the city treasury, receiving bribes from city contractors and businessmen. The Tweed Ring became the symbol of dishonest urban politics.
Martin Van Buren: A senator from New York, he established the Bucktail faction opposing Clinton. He served as secretary of state under Andrew Jackson during his first term, was a member of the Kitchen Cabinet, and served as Andrew Jackson’s vice president during his second term. He was elected president in 1836, and presided over the Panic of 1837 and an era of economic crisis.
Booker T. Washington: Founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881 as a black college. It trained many teachers. His autobiography, Up from Slavery, stressed the values of frugality and personal morality.
George Washington: He was unanimously chosen to lead the makeshift Continental Army for America, despite his loss at the beginning of the Seven Years War, and served without salary.
Whig Party: A political party made up of those who opposed President Jackson and were angered by the National Bank’s calling in of all loans. They supported a strong central government, the Bank of the United States, protective tariffs, and internal improvements. This party’s candidates nearly forced the presidential election of 1836 into the House of Representatives.
WCTU: Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Led by Frances Willard, this was the largest organization of women in the world at the time, and its members preached temperance and worked to reform the prison system, eliminate wages, and end prostitution.
Workingmen’s Party: Founded in Philadelphia in 1827, the members of this party advocated the rights of workers and promoted the 10 hour working day and preservation of small artisanal shops.
PLACES
Brooklyn Bridge: Designed by John Roebling, who died in an accident during its construction. Opened in 1883 and was acclaimed as the most original American construction.
Confederate States of America: A proclaimed nation composed of seven southern states that had seceded after the election of Abraham Lincoln.
Erie Canal: Envisioned by DeWitt Clinton as a link between the Great Lakes and New York City, it was a 364 mile long canal. It was build over a period of 8 years, utilizing Irish labor. It created a nearly international market for goods in New England.
The Philippines: During the Spanish-American War, President McKinley sent 5,000 troops to the Spanish held Philippines. The Filipino’s initially welcomed the Americans and fought against the Spanish, but after the war when the Americans didn’t leave, the Filipino’s rebelled. Despite heavy causalities on both sides, the rebellion failed. The Philippines remained a US territory until 1946
Puerto Rico, Samoa, Guam: Puerto Rico - US took possession of Puerto Rico in 1898 during the final stages of the Spanish-American War. Samoa – During the 1899 Tripartite Convention, Germany and the United States partitioned the Samoan Islands into two parts. Samoa played an important role in WWII. Guam - The US took control of the island in the 1898 Spanish-American War, as part of the Treaty of Paris. Guam came to serve as a station for American ships traveling to and from the Philippines. Guam was invaded by the Japanese in 1941 after Pearl Harbor. The US took back the island in 1944. Guam remains an unincorporated territory of the US.
Valley Forge: Located in Pennsylvania, it was the site of the military camp of the American Continental Army over the winter of 1777–1778 in the American Revolutionary War.
POLICIES, AGREEMENTS, COURT RULINGS
13th Amendment: A modification to the Constitution ratified in 1865 that outlawed slavery in all states.
14th Amendment: Ratified in 1868. The amendment provides a broad definition of national citizenship, overturning a central holding of the Dred Scott case. It requires the states to provide equal protection under the law to all persons within their jurisdictions.
15th Amendment: Passed in 1869, it guaranteed all Americans the right to vote, regardless of race.
Adams-Onis Treaty, 1819: Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, it was negotiated by John Quincy Adams. In it, Spain agreed to yield Florida to the U.S. and abandon any claims it had to the Louisiana and Oregon Territories. In exchange, the U.S. relinquished claims to Texas and took on $5 million in claims of American citizens against Spain.
Albany Plan of Union: Proposed by Benjamin Franklin, the plan was to establish an intercolonial union to manage defense and the affairs of Indians. It proposed the development of a new government which consisted of a president-general, who was appointed by the crown, and a Grand Council which would create general laws. This plan was rejected because the colonists feared a loss of autonomy.
Alien and Sedition Acts: A series of 4 acts passed by the Federalist majority in Congress in 1798: the Naturalization Act (raised the required residence in the United States for citizenship from 5 years to 14 years), the Alien Act and Alien Enemies Act (gave president the right to deport or imprison any suspected foreigners during times of war), and the Sedition Act (gave the government the right to place heavy fines or imprison anyone speaking or writing falsely or maliciously against the government).
Amnesty Act: Passed May 22, 1872, this act was a United States federal law that removed voting restrictions and office-holding disqualification against most of the secessionists who rebelled in the American Civil War, except for some 500 military leaders of the Confederacy.
Articles of Confederation: The first written constitution of the United States, which created a government with limited powers. It included a national assembly (Congress) with yearly selected delegates who in turn selected the President (annually, could serve 1 out of 3 years). Congress was responsible for national affairs, war, and the armed forces, had some economic control, and was the final authority in colonial disputes. It provided individual sovereignty for states (Congress could not directly tax citizens). Maryland was the last state to ratify the Articles (1781).
Bill of Rights: Ratified in 1791, the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, the first of which was the right of freedom of speech and the press. This was the most important legacy of the Anti-Federalists.
Black codes: Laws passed by states and cities that restricted the rights of free blacks, such as the right to carry fire arms and the right to purchase slaves.
Bland – Allison Act: An 1878 act of Congress requiring the U.S. Treasury to buy a certain amount of silver and put it into circulation as silver dollars. Though the bill was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes, the Congress overrode Hayes' veto on February 28, 1878 to enact the law.
British Proclamation of 1763: Issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War. It forbade travel west of the Appalachian Mountains. The purpose of the proclamation was to organize Great Britain's new North American empire and to stabilize relations with Native North Americans through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier, yet it was very controversial among Americans.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: In 1831, the Cherokee Nation sought a federal injunction against laws passed by the state of Georgia depriving them of rights within its boundaries, but the Supreme Court did not hear the case on its merits. It ruled that it had no original jurisdiction in the matter, as the Cherokee were a dependent nation, with a relationship to the United States like that of a ward to its guardian.
Chinese Exclusion Act: Suspended Chinese immigration for ten years, limited the civil rights of Chinese, and prevented them from becoming citizens. It was passed as a response to movements protesting “cheap Chinese labor”.
Chisholm v. Georgia: (1793) The Court ruled in favor of the plaintiff and granted federal courts the affirmative power to hear disputes between private citizens and States.
Civil Rights Act of 1875: Passed in 1875, the Act guaranteed that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in "public accommodations". It was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1883.
Compromise of 1850: A compromise driven by Stephen Douglas which admitted California as a free state, allowed New Mexico and Utah to decide slave/free status through popular sovereignty, ended the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and enacted the Fugitive Slave Law.
Compromise of 1877: The settling of the election of 1876 that allowed Rutherford B. Hayes to become president in exchange for the “home rule”, which gave Democrats control of southern state governments.
Compromise Tariff: (Aka The Tariff of 1833) Proposed by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun as a resolution to the Nullification Crisis, it was adopted to gradually reduce the rates after southerners objected to the protectionism found in the Tariff of 1832 and the 1828 Tariff of Abominations, which had prompted South Carolina to threaten secession from the Union.
Cumberland (National Road): One of the first major improved highways in the United States to be built by the federal government. Construction began in 1811 at Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac River, and ended at Vandalia, Illinois.
Declaration of Independence: Drafted by a committee consisting of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston, this document represented America’s decision to be independent of England.
Declaratory Acts: Gave Britain full legal authority over America.
Dred Scott v. Sanford: A Supreme Court decision in which Chief Justice Roger B. Taney held that any black person was not a citizen and dismissed the case when a former slave claimed freedom based on residence in a free territory. The ruling was supported by President Buchanan and outraged northerners.
Emancipation Proclamation: A decree issued by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 that freed all slaves in Confederate states still in rebellion.
Embargo Act: An act put into place by President Jefferson in 1807 in response to the widespread impressment of American sailors into the British navy, and British naval aggression. It forbade ships from entering foreign ports, effectively ending imports and exports. It did not have the desired effect and took a tremendous toll on the American economy.
Freedman’s Bureau: Formed by Congress in 1865, this agency provided food, clothing, and fuel to destitute former slaves.
Freeport Doctrine: A policy stated by Stephen Douglas during the Lincoln-Douglas debates that held that slavery could be suspended in western territories if the people of the territory voted for it. This policy alienated many of Douglas’ southern supporters.
Fugitive Slave Law: A segment of the Compromise of 1850 that required northern authorities to aid in the recapture of escaped slaves.
Gentlemen’s Agreement: An informal agreement between two or more parties. These types of agreements have been reported to be found in every type of industry, and very numerous in the steel and iron industries. (Possibly to avoid anti-trust laws? – my thought)
Gibbons vs. Ogden: Executed under Chief Justice John Marshall in 1824, this case prevented the state of New York from allowing Robert Fulton to obtain a monopoly over the steamboat line, arguing that while he had a federal patent, his invention’s commercial application was not protected by this patent.
Homestead Act: A law passed in 1862 that provided 160 acres of land to any citizen who agreed to live on and improve the land for five years and pay a small fee.
Independent Treasury Act: Passed in 1841, but repealed by the Whigs in 1842 and reinstated again in 1846. The act established the Independent Treasury, which was a system for the retaining of government funds in the United States Treasury and its sub-treasuries, independently of the national banking and financial systems.
Interstate Commerce Act: Passed in 1887, it was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices.
Intolerable Acts: Also known as the Coercive Acts, these were designed to punish Massachusetts for its rebellious behavior (the primary motive was the Boston Tea Party). These acts consisted of the Boston Port Bill, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Quartering Act, the Administration of Justice Act, and the Quebec Act.
Jay’s Treaty: An agreement between the U.S. and Britain that secured the withdrawal of British troops of America, limited trade between the U.S. and the British East and West Indies, and gave each country “most favored nation” status (meaning each state would benefit from trade with the other more than any other nation). This was contested by Jefferson and the Republicans, who advocated for positive relations with France.
Judiciary Act, 1789: Implemented the “judicial clause of the Constitution”, which empowered Congress to set the number of justices (originally 6, later 9) on the Supreme Court and develop a system of federal courts.
Kansas-Nebraska Act: An act introduced by Stephen Douglas that opened the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to popular sovereignty to decide slave or free status.
Land Ordinance, 1785: Provided for the organized survey and sale of western lands. Land was organized into tracts one square mile each called townships. Congress allowed the auction of land, forced Indians off Ohio land so it could be surveyed, and sold 1.5 million acres to the Ohio Company for $1 million (desperate for revenue).
Marbury v. Madison: A court case between Marbury, who had been selected to serve on the Supreme Court at the end of Adams’s term, and Madison, the Secretary of State at the time. The court decided in favor of Madison, but established the policy of judicial review, which holds that the Judicial Branch has the right to declare the constitutionality of laws.
McCulloch v. Maryland: (1819), was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. The state of Maryland had attempted to impede operation branch of the Second Bank of the United States. The Court invoked the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution, which allowed the Federal government to pass laws not expressly provided for in the Constitution's list of express powers.
McKinley Tariff: (Aka Tariff Act of 1890) The tariff raised the average duty on imports to almost fifty percent, an act designed to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.
Military Reconstruction Act: An act passed in 1867 that divided the South into 5 military districts subject to martial law.
Missouri Compromise: A compromise in which Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slaves state with Maine (previously part of Massachusetts) being added as a free state, maintaining the balance of slave and free states.
Monroe Doctrine: A policy founded largely by John Quincy Adams that stated that ended European colonization in the Western Hemisphere in exchange for the promise of the U.S. not to intervene in the affairs of Europe. It was enforced largely by Britain’s Royal Navy in its early years, when the United States navy was weak.
Morrill Land Grant Act: A law passed by Congress in 1862 that gave states public land that could be sold to establish mechanical and agricultural colleges.
Non-intercourse Act, Force Act, Macon’s Bill #2: American laws restricting American ships from engaging in foreign trade, particularly France and Great Britain, between the years of 1807 and 1812. They led to the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.
Northwest Ordinance, 1787: Established a government for the Northwest Territory (current states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin). Slavery was prohibited and Congress appointed a governor with absolute veto power. Arthur St. Clair (the president of the Ohio Company) was appointed as the first governor of the Northwest Territory.
Open Door Policy: A policy, promoted by President McKinley, of seeking equal trade in foreign regions, specifically in reference to China.
Oregon Treaty: A treaty between the United Kingdom and the United States that was signed on June 15, 1846, which brought an end to the Oregon boundary dispute by settling competing American and British claims to the Oregon Country, which had been jointly occupied by both Britain and the U.S. since the Treaty of 1818.
Ostend Manifesto: An attempt by the U.S. under President Pierce to forcibly purchase Cuba from Spain. The negotiation which included threats was leaked to the public, and the proposal was repudiated.
Pendleton Act: Created a commission that oversaw appointments to government positions based on merit, ending the spoils system that currently existed.
Pinckney Treaty: An agreement between the U.S. and New Spain that established a border between the two nations’ property along the 31st parallel. The Federalists forced Congress to accept Jay’s Treaty before this treaty could be ratified in 1796.
Plessy vs. Ferguson: A Supreme Court decision that ruled that segregated trains did not violate the Constitution and upheld the “separate but equal” doctrine.
Protective Tariff: Part of an economic policy of restraining trade between states through taxing imported goods; designed to discourage imports and prevent foreign take-over of domestic markets and companies.
Rush-Bagot Treaty, 1817: An important accomplishment of John Quincy Adams, this treaty demilitarized the Great Lakes by limiting the number of ships each country could station there. It was one of the agreements that helped to set in stone the border between the U.S. and Canada.
Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890: It outlawed restraint to commerce and was aimed at breaking up monopolies in response to Rockefeller. Courts interpreted the act differently from its intent and used it against trade unions.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890: An act that authorized paper currency to be backed by silver mined in the West, which was later opposed and repealed by President Grover Cleveland.
Stamp Act: Passed by Parliament in 1765, this act required the purchase of special embossed paper for official papers, such as newspapers, legal documents, and licenses for people in America. This caused a crisis in America, as high taxes from the British had already reduced many to poverty. It was repealed in 1766 as a result of successful nonimportation campaigns by the Americans.
Stamp Act Congress: A 1765 meeting of delegates from 9 colonies in New York City which agreed that Britain had no right to tax the colonists, arguing that taxation required representation. The delegates also agreed to stop importing goods from Britain until the taxes were repealed, but took a moderate stance and discouraged radicals.
Quartering Act: Passed by Parliament in 1774, this act legalized the housing of troops at public expense.
Sugar Act: Proposed by George Grenville (Chancellor of the Exchequer) and enacted in 1764 by Parliament, this was designed to raise English revenue from America by placing a duty on sugar that was imported into the colonies and further restricting colonial trade.
Tallmadge Amendment: Submitted by James Tallmadge, Jr. in the United States House of Representatives on February 13, 1819, during the debate regarding the admission of Missouri as a state. Tallmadge, an opponent of slavery, sought to impose conditions on Missouri that would extinguish slavery within a generation.
Tariff of Abominations: The 1828 tariff that imposed very high taxes on imported textiles and iron. It was passed by Andrew Jackson’s supporters in Congress to gain northern support, and was vehemently opposed by Southerners, who claimed that it was unconstitutional because it violated the rights of some states.
Tenure of Office Act: An act that stated that any officeholder appointed by the president with the Senate’s consent could not be removed until the Senate approved a successor, effectively protecting Republicans in office.
Townshend Acts: Also known as the Revenue Acts, these acts placed duties on major commodities such as paper, tea, paint, and glass. They were implemented by Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of Exchequer for England, in an attempt to ease the massive debt caused by the Seven Years War.
Treaty of Ghent: The treaty that ended the War of 1812, signed in 1814. The treaty did not address the major issues of British impressments and neutral rights, but the British did agree to evacuate their western posts.
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: An agreement made by Nicholas Trist in which Mexico ceded its northern provinces of New Mexico and California and accepted the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas. The U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million and accept $2 million in claims.
Treaty of Paris, 1763: Signed at the Conclusion of the Seven Years’ War, it forced French to cede all its American possessions to Britain, with the exception of Louisiana, which went to Spain. Spain also ceded Florida to England in exchange for its previous Caribbean possessions.
Trent Affair: (Aka the Mason and Slidell Affair) was an international incident that occurred during the Civil War. On November 8, 1861, the USS San Jacinto intercepted the British mail packet Trent and removed, as contraband of war, two Confederate diplomats, James Mason and John Slidell. The envoys were bound for Great Britain and France to press the Confederacy’s case for diplomatic recognition by Europe.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Authored anonymously by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, these resolutions asserted that the states had the right to nullify any laws they deemed unconstitutional. They were written in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts and were passed by the Virginia and Kentucky legislatures.
Wabash Case: Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois, (1886), was a Supreme Court decision that severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce. It led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Wade Davis Bill: A proposal formed by two Radical Republicans that required 50% of citizens of a southern state to swear allegiance before the state could return to the Union and guaranteed legal equality for freed slaves. Lincoln vetoed this bill.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty: Signed August 9, 1842, was a treaty resolving several border issues between the United States and the British North American colonies, particularly a dispute over the location of the Maine–New Brunswick border. It also called for a final end to the slave trade on the high seas, to be enforced by both signatories; and agreed on terms for shared use of the Great Lakes.
Wilmot Proviso: An amendment suggested by David Wilmot in 1846 which stated that slavery should be outlawed in new states. This sparked a slavery crisis and led to sectional politics and the formation of the free-soiler party.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff: (1894) it slightly reduced the United States tariff rates from the numbers set in the 1890 McKinley tariff and imposed a 2% income tax.
Adam’s “Midnight Appointments”: Adams used his authority under the Judiciary Act of 1801 to pack the courts with Federalist judicial appointments during the final two months and up to the last days of his administration.
Assembly Line: A technique of industrial production used by Henry Ford that involved each worker performing one step of the operation that led to increased efficiency.
Clipper Ships: A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the 19th century that had three or more masts and a square rig. The boom years of the Clipper Ship Era began in 1843 as a result of the growing demand for a more rapid delivery of tea from China.
First Bank of the United States: The First Bank was a bank chartered by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. The charter was set for a 20-year expiration date. The Bank was created to handle the financial needs and requirements of the central government of the newly formed United States, which had previously been thirteen individual states with their own banks, currencies, financial institutions, and policies.
Interchangeable Parts: The concept of interchangeability was crucial to the introduction of the assembly line at the beginning of the 20th century, and has become a ubiquitous element of modern manufacturing. The system for producing interchangeable parts is alternately called The American system of manufacturing because it was first most fully developed in the U.S. Eli Whitney first used in riffle assembly.
Lowell System: A system in which all aspects of textile manufacture are able to be completed in the same factory. This system required a larger capital investment than the previous small mills. The invention of the power loom greatly enhanced this process.
Second Bank of the United States: This was the first step in the plan of the American System under President Monroe. Its purpose was to take on large scale financing and establish a strong national currency.
Standard Oil: Company which at one point controlled over 90 percent of America’s oil-refining industry and was owned by John D. Rockefeller.
Transatlantic Cable: July 27, 1866, Trans-Atlantic telegraph Cable connects Old World to New
U.S. Steel Corporation: J. P. Morgan founded U.S. Steel in 1901 by combining Carnegie Steel Company with Federal Steel Company and National Steel Company. At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U.S. Steel in 1911, but that effort ultimately failed.
Utopian Communities: Arose in 1830’s predominantly in upstate NY. Amid political activism and reform movement of the day, many chose to “escape”. Shakers – abolish traditional family in favor of communal fellowship. Oneida Community – sexual freedom. New Harmony – manufacturing community w/out poverty or unemployment. Most successful = Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons).
Washington’s Farewell Address: After being demonized by the press, realizing he was sick of politics, and wanting to return to farm life, Washington refused his 3rd term as president. In his Farewell Address, he argued for Americans to distance themselves from the political affairs in Europe, but not adopt a policy of isolationism.
Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation: A formal announcement issued by United States President George Washington on April 22, 1793, declaring the nation neutral in the conflict between France and Great Britain. It threatened legal proceedings against any American providing assistance to warring countries. The Proclamation led to the Neutrality Act of 1794.
Yellow Journalism: A type of journalism in which the author uses flashy headlines of little substance to attract attention.
EVENTS
Atlanta Exposition/Compromise: 1895, Booker T. Washington gave a speech at the Cotton States Exposition in Atlanta on racial accommodation and urging blacks to focus on economic improvement and self-reliance, as opposed to political and civil rights.
Battle of New Orleans: The most well-known victory of Andrew Jackson in which he defeated a British-Indian alliance with the odds against him. It greatly boosted morale, which was not at its best during the War of 1812.
Bleeding Kansas: The civil war that occurred in Kansas as pro-slave and abolitionists competed for votes.
Boston Massacre: A British soldier was denied a job in 1770. He called his friends, the situation got out of hand, and a small riot ensued. The British soldiers fired into the crowd, killing 5, the first of which was Crispus Attucks. This event became infamous and further inflamed tensions between the colonists and the British.
Boston Tea Party: In protest of the Tea Act, a group of colonists disguised as Indians boarded a British ship and emptied 10,000 pounds worth of tea into Boston Harbor. This act was emulated in other colonies, but the one in Boston had the greatest effect on the British, and led to the implementation of the Intolerable Acts.
Boxer Rebellion: Beginning in 1898, groups of peasants in northern China began to band together into a secret society known as I-ho ch'üan ("Righteous and Harmonious Fists"), called the "Boxers" by Western press. By 1900, the Boxers murdered thousands of foreigners, especially missionaries, in an attempt to rid China of all foreign influence. President McKinley sent 5,000 troops to help quell the rebellion.
British Burn Washington, D.C.: The Burning of Washington was a battle that took place on August 24, 1814, during the War of 1812. The British Army occupied Washington, D.C. and set fire to many public buildings following the American defeat at the Battle of Bladensburg. The facilities of the U.S. government, including the White House and U.S. Capitol, were largely destroyed.
Chesapeake Affair: An international diplomatic incident that occurred during the Civil War. On December 7, 1863 Confederate sympathizers an American ship off the coast of Cape Cod. American forces violated British sovereignty by trying to arrest the captures in Nova Scotian waters, which further escalated the affair. The incident briefly threatened to bring Great Britain into the war against the North.
Constitutional Convention of 1787: Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The result of the Convention was the United States Constitution.
Credit Mobilier Scandal: A scandal in which several Republican stockholders created a dummy company, Credit Mobilier, as a way of diverting funds for the building of railroad. When the scandal broke in 1872, it ruined Vice President Colfax and led to the censure of two senators.
“Cross of Gold” Speech: Delivered by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago on July 8, 1896. Following the Coinage Act (1873), the United States abandoned its policy of bimetallism and began to operate a de facto gold standard. In 1896, the Democratic Party wanted to standardize the value of the dollar to silver and opposed a monometallic gold standard.
Era of Good Feelings: A term used to refer to the presidency of James Monroe (1817-1823) in which the Jeffersonian Republicans enjoyed an almost nonpartisan rule.
Federalist Papers: Written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, this series of essays defended the Constitution. It opposed the theory of Montesquieu that a republican government only works well in small countries, arguing that the best way to control political factions was to “extend the sphere of government”, making great size an advantage to a republican government.
Filipino Insurrection: During the Spanish-American War, President McKinley sent troops to the Spanish held Philippines. The Filipino’s initially welcomed the Americans and fought against the Spanish, but after the war when the Americans didn’t leave, the Filipino’s rebelled. Despite heavy causalities on both sides, the rebellion failed. The Philippines remained a US territory until 1946
Fisk – Gould Scandal: Also known as Black Friday, September 24, 1869. It was a financial panic in the United States caused by two speculators’ efforts to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange. It was one of several scandals that rocked the presidency of Ulysses S. Grant.
French and Indian War: An extended conflict between England and France (with Spain often allied with France) that extended across the globe. The Seven Years’ War in America was known as the French and Indian War. It ended with the British victorious at the Treaty of Paris in 1763. This war strengthened the unity among the colonies.
German and Irish Immigration: Some Irish had come to America in earlier times but the Irish Potato Famine of 1845-49 caused first major influx of Irish immigrants, who were too poor to travel inland and buy land, so stay in cities. Largest numbers settled in NY and they were absorbed in the large city, but those that went to Boston were unwelcome. Germans had begun arriving when William Penn established PA, but larger numbers came in the 1840’s & 1850’s. Germans formed agricultural communities, rather than remaining in the cities. They kept their cultural and religious practices.
Gold Rush in California: Sutter’s Mill was the location in California where gold was first discovered by James Marshall in 1848. The people who came in search of gold were called “49ers”. Eighty percent were American, 13% Mexican/Latin American and the rest from Europe and Asia. “Boom towns” became “ghost towns” when gold dried up. Animosity toward Chinese was lasting effect.
Harrison at Tippecanoe Creek: William Henry Harrison of the United States led 1000 men to Tippecanoe, where Tecumseh and his men were staying in November 1811. The following battle claimed 150 casualties on both sides. Harrison claimed victory, but it could hardly be called that. Tecumseh’s followers then began to attack surrounding American settlements.
Hartford Convention: Federalist representatives from the five New England states met to discuss their opposition to the War of 1812. They insisted on a policy of nullification, asserting that state governments could intervene if they deemed an act of the federal government unconstitutional. The Convention was ignored, however, when news of peace arrived from Britain before the Convention could issue a formal statement.
Haymarket Square Riot: A protest against police violence in Chicago ended violently as a bomb was thrown, killing several police officers, which prompted the police to fire into the crowd. This led to the collapse of the Knights of Labor, as company owners drew up blacklists and reinstated the ten hour day.
Homestead Strike: A strike in the Carnegie Steel Company. Carnegie and his chairman Henry C. Frick decided to break the union by lowering wages and sending a private army to quell the armed workers. The most powerful union of the AFL was defeated.
Indian Removal: Indian Removal Act: Passed under President Jackson, this act set aside funds for the relocation (by force, if necessary) of Indians.
King George’s War: Again consisting of the English versus the French, King George’s War was fought primarily in America. The war ended in a stalemate, but it was the first war in history in which the conclusive battle was fought on American soil.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates: Public debates between Abraham Lincoln (anti-slave) and Stephen Douglas (pro-slave) during the 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign regarding slavery.
Maysville Road Veto: This bill was vetoed by President Andrew Jackson, who claimed that internal improvements such as these should be paid for by the states. This was one of his most unexpected actions because his supporters expected him to provide federal funding for internal improvements. The bill would have created a National Road in Kentucky.
Mexican-American War: A war beginning in 1846 which was provoked by President Polk after Mexico refused his offer to buy California and New Mexico. Polk assumed control of military strategy during the War, which the United States won. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Pullman Strike: A strike against the tyrannical rule of George Pullman in his self-contained community built around his railroad company. The strikers appointed Eugene Debs as the head of the strike, and it grew to have participation nationwide. It was quelled when the army intervened and arrested the strike leaders.
Queen Anne’s War: Part of what is also known as the War of Spanish Succession, Queen Anne’s war pitted England and France (allied with the Spanish) against each other. Overall, Britain was victorious, and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) forced the Spanish to yield exclusive trading rights to their colonies to the British.
Reform Movements: Progressive Era: A period of time in the United States from 1900 to 1917 in which a variety of reform movements took place.
WCTU: Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Led by Frances Willard, this was the largest organization of women in the world at the time, and its members preached temperance and worked to reform the prison system, eliminate wages, and end prostitution.
Social Gospel: Initiated by Washington Gladden, it was a movement in which churches began to contend with pressing social problems, working towards civil service reform and the end of child labor. Women were also active in the movement.
Charles Finney: Preached a doctrine of “perfectionism”, which held that it was possible for all Christians to live by God’s will and convert the whole world, creating a perfect moral and religious community. He was president of Oberlin College, which was the most liberal college of the time.
Florence Kelley: A social reformer who helped to direct the support of the settlement home movement after visiting Hull House. She also helped to create the New York Child Labor Committee and the U.S. Children’s Bureau.
Seneca Falls Convention: Held in New York in 1848, this was the first convention for women’s rights.
Seward’s Purchase of Alaska: Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska, “Sewards’ Icebox”, from the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million.
Shay’s Rebellion: Led by Revolutionary officer Daniel Shays in Pelham, Massachusetts (1796), a group of farmers protested the extremely high taxes that were being imposed by the merchant-dominated Massachusetts legislature. The rebellion ended when a Massachusetts militia crushed the Shaysites. The farmers armed themselves and marched on Northampton court. Similar conflicts occurred in other colonies.
Sherman’s March through Georgia: A violent and destructive crusade which included the burning of Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman wanted to inflict such horrors that the South would not consider war again.
Sioux Wars: A series of conflicts between the United States and various subgroups of the Sioux people that occurred in the latter half of the 19th century. Wounded Knee was a well-known massacre in 1890 by Indians partially in response to fear of the Ghost Dance. Fort Laramie Treaty was signed in 1868 after Sioux Indians burned several American forts which guaranteed the Sioux land and hunting rights in South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana.
South Carolina Exposition and Protest: A defense of the doctrine of nullification written by John C. Calhoun anonymously. The nullification doctrine held that a state had the rights to not enforce a federal law if they deemed it necessary.
South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification: This document declared the Tariff of 1828 and 1832 null and void within the state borders of South Carolina. It began the Nullification Crisis. Passed by a state convention on November 24, 1832, it led, on December 10, to President Andrew Jackson's Force Bill that threatened to use troops to enforce the tariffs. In the face of the military threat, and following a Congressional revision of the tariff, South Carolina repealed the ordinance.
Spanish-American War: A popular conflict sparked by the destruction of the USS Maine that was swiftly concluded as an American victory. As a result, Cuba was freed from Spain and America conquered much of the Philippines.
Trail of Tears: The march of the last of the resisting Cherokees from George to Oklahoma in 1836. They were escorted by a 7,000-man army, and one quarter of the 16,000 Indians perished along the way.
Tripoli War: Also known as the Barbary Coast War (1801–1805), was the first of two wars fought between the United States and the North African Berber Muslim states known collectively as the Barbary States. The war stemmed from the Barbary pirates’ attacks upon American merchant shipping in an attempt to extort ransom for the lives of captured sailors, and ultimately tribute from the United States to avoid further attacks.
USS Maine: Maine had been sent to Havana, Cuba to protect U.S. interests during the Cuban revolt against Spain. On the evening of 15 February 1898, she suddenly exploded, and swiftly sank, killing nearly three quarters of her crew. Though then, as now, the cause and responsibility for her sinking were unclear; popular opinion in the U.S. blamed Spain, and the sinking (popularized in the phrase “Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!”) was one of the precipitating events of the Spanish–American War.
Uncle Tom’s Cabin Published: Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, this was the most successful American novel of the mid-nineteenth century. It consisted of vivid details of slavery from firsthand accounts.
Undeclared Naval War with France: (Quasi-War) An undeclared naval battle between the United States and France that lasted from 1797 to 1800.
Union Pacific and Central Pacific/Transcontinental Line: The world's First Transcontinental Railroad was built between 1863 and 1869 to join the eastern and western halves of the United States. Both companies were federally chartered by Congress because of the belief that America’s economic future lay in trade with Asia across the Pacific Ocean. Union Pacific laid track westward from Omaha, Central Pacific laid track eastward from California.
Whiskey Rebellion: A rebellion of Pennsylvania farmers over the tax placed on the distillation of whiskey. Those who rebelled argued the implementation of a tax on such a practice was against the principles of the Revolution (large landowners should be taxed for revenue, not small farmers). The rebellion became somewhat violent when the rebels attempted to seize tax collectors, and several were killed. President Washington responded by sending 13,000 soldiers in an occupation of west Pennsylvania. The rebellion quickly died down at this dramatic response, which demonstrated the federal government’s power and dedication to preserve the Union.
XYZ Affair: Rising tensions between the U.S. and France led France to adopt an aggressive naval policy to the U.S., seizing hundreds of American ships. President Adams sent delegates to France to negotiate a truce, but the French demanded a bribe. This correspondence was released to the public, with the names of the French negotiators replaced with the letters X, Y, and Z. This caused an uproar of anti-French sentiment, and the U.S. prepared for war, tripling the size of its army. War was avoided, however, when Britain defeated France near Egypt.
PEOPLE (Individuals & Groups)
John Adams: A Federalist, he served as the second president of the United States. He attempted to conduct his presidency in the manner that George Washington had before him. Against the will of the Federalists in Congress, he made peace with the French, which he considered one of his greatest accomplishments.
John Quincy Adams: Elected president in 1824 by the House of Representatives, he accomplished little during his presidency. However, he did succeed in funding an extension of the National Road. He served one term, as the general public greatly favored Andrew Jackson, even during his presidency.
Jane Addams: One of the leaders of the settlement house movement, she founded Hull House in Chicago after graduating from Rockford College.
American Anti-Slavery Society: An anti-slavery movement which condemned slavery as sinful and demanded its immediate abolition. Its founder, William Garrison, would not settle for compromise and demanded social equality for freed blacks.
American Federation of Labor: A Union formed in 1886 that organized skilled workers. It accepted the wage system (unlike the Knights) and sought shorter hours and better conditions. It did not resort to strikes as often as the Knights of Labor.
American Protective Association: The APA was founded 13 March 1887 by Attorney Henry F. Bowers in Iowa. The APA's goals included restricting Catholic immigration, making ability to speak English a prerequisite to American citizenship, removing Catholic teachers from public schools and banning Catholics from public offices.
Susan B. Anthony: (February 15, 1820 – March 13, 1906) was a prominent American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the 19th century women's rights movement to introduce women's suffrage into the United States. She was co-founder of the first Women's Temperance Movement with Elizabeth Cady Stanton as President.
Anti-masonic Party: Formed in 1828, it was the first third party in American history. It was founded as a single-issue party aspiring to become a major party. It introduced important innovations to American politics, such as nominating conventions and the adoption of party platforms.
Chester Arthur: Served as the 21st President of the United States (1881–1885). Arthur was a member of the Republican Party and worked as a lawyer before becoming the 20th Vice President under James Garfield. Garfield was mortally wounded by Charles J. Guiteau on July 2, 1881, at which time Arthur was sworn in as president, serving until March 4, 1885.
Elizabeth Blackwell: The first female doctor in the United States. She became active in the anti-slavery movement, as did her brother Henry Brown Blackwell, and was prominent in the emerging women's rights movement.
John Brown: An aggressive anti-slavery man who played a major role in Bleeding Kansas and died during his failed raid in the South.
William Jennings Bryan: The Democratic nominee in the election of 1896 who was defeated by William McKinley. His slogan reflected populist views and he promoted silver.
James Buchanan: The 15th President of the United States (1857-1861). He is the only president from Pennsylvania, the only president who remained a life-long bachelor.
Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce: Leader of the Nez Perce Indians, who were forced to move off their land and proceeded to fight U.S. troops until they were captured.
Civil Service Commission: Established by the Pendleton Civil Service Act, it oversaw appointments to government positions based on merit, ending the spoils system that currently existed.
Committees of Correspondence: Groups created by Americans to encourage the sharing of information (primarily British actions) and cooperation among colonies. The first of these was created by the Virginia House of Burgesses.
Coxey’s Army: During the Depression of 1893, populist Jacob Coxey gathered an army of 600 and marched to Washington, DC to demand a public works program. Police clubbed the army and arrested its leaders on arrival.
Eugene V. Debs: Leader of the Pullman Strike and the American Railway Union (whose strike was recently victorious over the Northern rail line).
Thomas Alva Edison: The inventor of the incandescent light bulb.
Emerson and Thoreau: Ralph Waldo Emerson was an immensely popular author and speaker. His most famous speech was “The American Scholar”, which carried the message of cultural self-sufficiency. He encouraged American writers to find inspiration in ordinary life. Henry David Thoreau was a proponent of Transcendentalism to the extreme, he supported the idea of individualism so much that he moved into a cabin at Walden Pond, and he was the author of the book Walden.
Millard Fillmore: The 13th President of the United States (1850–1853) and the last member of the Whig Party to hold the office of president. As Zachary Taylor's Vice President, he assumed the presidency after Taylor's death. Fillmore opposed the proposal to keep slavery out of the territories annexed during the Mexican–American War (to appease the South), and so supported the Compromise of 1850, which he signed, including the Fugitive Slave Act which was part of the compromise.
1st Continental Congress: A meeting of delegates in Philadelphia in 1774, including Samuel and John Adams, George Washington, and Patrick Henry. The general feeling of the group was to avoid war and to use economic coercion. It passed Declaration and Reserves, arguing that the British were violating colonial rights and calling for nonimportation practices. It also called for Committees of Observation and Safety, which took over the functions of a local government (organized militia, oversaw extralegal courts, formed colonial conventions).
Free-Soil Party: Members of a political party that promoted the adjustment of abolitionist ideals to practical politics.
Robert Fulton: The inventor of the steamboat. This was a major part of the Transportation Revolution.
James Garfield: The 20th President of the United States, after completing nine consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives; he is the only incumbent Representative in Congress to be elected President. Garfield's presidency lasted just 200 days—from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881, as a result of being shot by assassin Charles J. Guiteau on July 2, 1881.
Edmund Genet: The French ambassador who came to America in 1793 seeking to win American involvement in France’s war with Britain. He authorized American privateering raids against the British, and many Americans sympathized with him (they already hated the British). Despite his efforts, President Washington declared that the U.S. would be taking a neutral stance. Genet then challenged the president to a debate on his decision, which outraged Washington, and cost Jefferson his position in the cabinet.
George III (King): King of Great Britain during the American Revolution.
Samuel Gompers: Founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL), and served as that organization's president from 1886 to 1894 and from 1895 until his death in 1924.
The Grange Movement: A national organization of farm owners who blamed railroad corporations, large manufacturers, and banks for their poor economic situation.
Ulysses S. Grant: The most prominent Union general of the Civil War, named general-in-chief of all Union forces in 1864.
Greenback Party: An American political party with an anti-monopoly ideology that was active between 1874 and 1884. Its name referred to paper money, or "greenbacks," that had been issued during the American Civil War and afterward. The party opposed the shift from paper money back to a coin-based monetary system because it believed that privately owned banks and corporations would then reacquire the power to define the value of products and labor. It was established as a political party whose members were primarily farmers financially hurt by the Panic of 1873.
Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President of the United States (1889–1893). Harrison was the grandson of President William Henry Harrison.
William Henry Harrison: A presidential candidate in 1840 nominated by the Whigs who was a military hero like Jackson, having won the Battle of Tippecanoe. He was victorious against his opponent, Martin Van Buren, who was disliked by the general public. However, Harrison died of pneumonia one month after his inauguration, allowing John Tyler to take the presidency.
Rutherford B. Hayes: A Republican who gained the presidency in 1876 after Republicans challenged the vote totals of Samuel Tilden (Democrat), who had 200,000 more popular votes.
William Randolph Hearst: An American newspaper magnate and leading newspaper publisher. Hearst created a chain that numbered nearly 30 papers in major American cities at its peak.
Andrew Jackson: A military commander in the South, he is known for his attacks against the Indians. His most well known victory was at the Battle of New Orleans. A Democratic Republican, he was elected President in 1828
Thomas Jefferson: The third president of the United States, he envisioned the United States would become an “agrarian republic”, consisting of communities of small farmers. He was concerned for the fate of Indians and instituted the Embargo Act.
Andrew Johnson: Succeeded the presidency after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. He believed reconstruction was the responsibility of the executive branch and granted amnesty and restoration of property to southerners who pledged loyalty to the Union. He was later almost impeached.
Knights of Labor: A labor union founded in 1869 which believed that “producing classes” need to be freed from their lives of poverty to create a genuinely democratic society. The union withered away after the Haymarket Square Riot.
Know-Nothings (American) Party: A political party that was anti-immigrant. Its members frequently would refuse to state their political views, hence the name of the party.
Ku Klux Klan: A group that terrorized blacks in the South during the Reconstruction era, founded in 1866 by Confederate veterans.
Liberty Party: A political party that had abolition as its main goal. Its first presidential candidate was James G. Birney.
Abraham Lincoln: The President of the United States during the Civil War.
Alfred Thayer Mahan: President of the Rhode Island Naval War College and author of The Influence of Sea Power upon American History, he supported an imperialist foreign policy.
Horace Mann: Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval from modernizers, especially in his Whig Party, for building public schools.
William McKinley: Defeated William Jennings Bryan in the election of 1896 and promoted the Open Door Policy.
James Monroe: The fifth president of the United States, elected in 1816, and he served two terms. He put the American System into effect and is the namesake of the Monroe Doctrine.
National Labor Union: The first national labor federation in the United States. Founded in 1866 and dissolved in 1873, it paved the way for other organizations, such as the Knights of Labor and the AFL. he new organization favored arbitration over strikes and called for the creation of a national labor party as an alternative to the two existing parties.
Thomas Paine: Author of Common Sense, the most influential book of the Revolutionary Era. Its most important effect was the shape popular thinking in favor of independence from England. Paine placed most of the blame for the colonists’ oppression on King George III. This book sold over 100,000 copies.
Franklin Pierce: The 14th President of the United States (1853-1857) and is the only President from New Hampshire. Pierce was a Democrat and a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies). The Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas-Nebraska Act were "the two great calamities of the Franklin Pierce administration.... Both brought down an avalanche of public criticism."
James Polk: The 11th President of the United States (1845–1849). Polk was the surprise ("dark horse") candidate for president in 1844, defeating Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party by promising to annex Texas. Polk led the nation to a sweeping victory in the Mexican-American War, which gave the United States most of its present Southwest.
Populist Party/Platform: A third party based on reform movements and primarily comprised of farmers.
Joseph Pulitzer: A Hungarian-American newspaper publisher of the St. Louis Post Dispatch and the New York World. In the 1890s the fierce competition between his World and William R. Hearst's New York Journal introduced yellow journalism and opened the way to mass circulation newspapers that depended on advertising revenue and appealed to the reader with multiple forms of news, entertainment and advertising. Today he is best known for posthumously establishing the Pulitzer Prizes.
Queen Liliuokalani: The last monarch and only queen regnant of the Kingdom of Hawaii; ruled from 1891 - 1893. The Queen was deposed on 17 January 1893 and temporarily relinquished her throne to "the superior military forces of the United States".
Republican Party: A political party founded in 1854 consisting of Whigs, northern Democrats, and Know-Nothings. The party advocated expansion and was anti-slavery. Its first presidential candidate was John C. Fremont.
Rough Riders: The name bestowed on the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, one of three such regiments raised in 1898 for the Spanish-American War. Theodore Roosevelt was second in command, but when Colonel Wood became commander of the 1st Cavalry Brigade (1st U.S. Cavalry, 106th U.S. Cavalry, and 1st U.S.V. Cavalry) the Rough Riders then became "Roosevelt's Rough Riders".
2nd Continental Congress: A meeting in Philadelphia in 1775 with representatives from all colonies except Georgia (heavily dependent on British subsidies because it was a new colony, but later joined). Because the common people had an enthusiasm for war, the meeting focused primarily on defense. Because it lacked the funds to raise an army, it designated the colonial forces currently at Boston as the Continental Army, and it was decided unanimously that George Washington was to command the army. The congress also sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III, which was later rejected. It appointed commissioners to negotiate with the Indians to keep them out of the conflict and reinstated Benjamin Franklin as postmaster general (had been fired for leaking a letter from Governor Hutchinson).
Shakers: Founded by Ann Lee in 1774, this group advocated the abolishment of the traditional family in favor of a group of people joined in equal fellowship where sex and marriage was prohibited.
Sons of Liberty: Formed in response to the Stamp Act, these were organizations that engaged in moderate forms of protest, such as circulating pamphlets and only turned to crowds as a last resort. These groups had limited political goals in comparison to American radicals.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: (11/12/1815 – 10/26/1902) was an American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early woman's movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movements in the United States.
Zachary Taylor: A prominent and successful general during the Mexican-American War who went on to become president in the election of 1848.
Temperance Societies: advocated the elimination of the consumption of alcohol.
· Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Led by Frances Willard, this was the largest organization of women in the world at the time, and its members preached temperance and worked to reform the prison system, eliminate wages, and end prostitution.
· Anti-Saloon League - under the leadership of Wayne Wheeler stressed political results and utilized pressure politics. It did not demand that politicians change their drinking habits, only their votes in the legislature.
· American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was a society established on February 13, 1826 in Boston, MA. Within five years there were 2,220 local chapters in the U.S. with 170,000 members who had taken a pledge to abstain from drinking distilled beverages. Within ten years, there were over 8,000 local groups and more than 1,500,000 members who had taken the pledge.
Frederick Jackson Turner: An influential American historian in the early 20th century. He is best known for his book, The Significance of the Frontier in American History.
Nat Turner: An intelligent priest that led an uprising of slaves in Virginia in 1831 that resulted in the death of 55 whites before put to an end. The rebellion struck fear into the hearts of many slave-owners.
“Boss” Tweed: Democratic Party boss William Tweed which stole tens of millions of dollars from the city treasury, receiving bribes from city contractors and businessmen. The Tweed Ring became the symbol of dishonest urban politics.
Martin Van Buren: A senator from New York, he established the Bucktail faction opposing Clinton. He served as secretary of state under Andrew Jackson during his first term, was a member of the Kitchen Cabinet, and served as Andrew Jackson’s vice president during his second term. He was elected president in 1836, and presided over the Panic of 1837 and an era of economic crisis.
Booker T. Washington: Founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881 as a black college. It trained many teachers. His autobiography, Up from Slavery, stressed the values of frugality and personal morality.
George Washington: He was unanimously chosen to lead the makeshift Continental Army for America, despite his loss at the beginning of the Seven Years War, and served without salary.
Whig Party: A political party made up of those who opposed President Jackson and were angered by the National Bank’s calling in of all loans. They supported a strong central government, the Bank of the United States, protective tariffs, and internal improvements. This party’s candidates nearly forced the presidential election of 1836 into the House of Representatives.
WCTU: Women’s Christian Temperance Union – Led by Frances Willard, this was the largest organization of women in the world at the time, and its members preached temperance and worked to reform the prison system, eliminate wages, and end prostitution.
Workingmen’s Party: Founded in Philadelphia in 1827, the members of this party advocated the rights of workers and promoted the 10 hour working day and preservation of small artisanal shops.
PLACES
Brooklyn Bridge: Designed by John Roebling, who died in an accident during its construction. Opened in 1883 and was acclaimed as the most original American construction.
Confederate States of America: A proclaimed nation composed of seven southern states that had seceded after the election of Abraham Lincoln.
Erie Canal: Envisioned by DeWitt Clinton as a link between the Great Lakes and New York City, it was a 364 mile long canal. It was build over a period of 8 years, utilizing Irish labor. It created a nearly international market for goods in New England.
The Philippines: During the Spanish-American War, President McKinley sent 5,000 troops to the Spanish held Philippines. The Filipino’s initially welcomed the Americans and fought against the Spanish, but after the war when the Americans didn’t leave, the Filipino’s rebelled. Despite heavy causalities on both sides, the rebellion failed. The Philippines remained a US territory until 1946
Puerto Rico, Samoa, Guam: Puerto Rico - US took possession of Puerto Rico in 1898 during the final stages of the Spanish-American War. Samoa – During the 1899 Tripartite Convention, Germany and the United States partitioned the Samoan Islands into two parts. Samoa played an important role in WWII. Guam - The US took control of the island in the 1898 Spanish-American War, as part of the Treaty of Paris. Guam came to serve as a station for American ships traveling to and from the Philippines. Guam was invaded by the Japanese in 1941 after Pearl Harbor. The US took back the island in 1944. Guam remains an unincorporated territory of the US.
Valley Forge: Located in Pennsylvania, it was the site of the military camp of the American Continental Army over the winter of 1777–1778 in the American Revolutionary War.
POLICIES, AGREEMENTS, COURT RULINGS
13th Amendment: A modification to the Constitution ratified in 1865 that outlawed slavery in all states.
14th Amendment: Ratified in 1868. The amendment provides a broad definition of national citizenship, overturning a central holding of the Dred Scott case. It requires the states to provide equal protection under the law to all persons within their jurisdictions.
15th Amendment: Passed in 1869, it guaranteed all Americans the right to vote, regardless of race.
Adams-Onis Treaty, 1819: Also known as the Transcontinental Treaty, it was negotiated by John Quincy Adams. In it, Spain agreed to yield Florida to the U.S. and abandon any claims it had to the Louisiana and Oregon Territories. In exchange, the U.S. relinquished claims to Texas and took on $5 million in claims of American citizens against Spain.
Albany Plan of Union: Proposed by Benjamin Franklin, the plan was to establish an intercolonial union to manage defense and the affairs of Indians. It proposed the development of a new government which consisted of a president-general, who was appointed by the crown, and a Grand Council which would create general laws. This plan was rejected because the colonists feared a loss of autonomy.
Alien and Sedition Acts: A series of 4 acts passed by the Federalist majority in Congress in 1798: the Naturalization Act (raised the required residence in the United States for citizenship from 5 years to 14 years), the Alien Act and Alien Enemies Act (gave president the right to deport or imprison any suspected foreigners during times of war), and the Sedition Act (gave the government the right to place heavy fines or imprison anyone speaking or writing falsely or maliciously against the government).
Amnesty Act: Passed May 22, 1872, this act was a United States federal law that removed voting restrictions and office-holding disqualification against most of the secessionists who rebelled in the American Civil War, except for some 500 military leaders of the Confederacy.
Articles of Confederation: The first written constitution of the United States, which created a government with limited powers. It included a national assembly (Congress) with yearly selected delegates who in turn selected the President (annually, could serve 1 out of 3 years). Congress was responsible for national affairs, war, and the armed forces, had some economic control, and was the final authority in colonial disputes. It provided individual sovereignty for states (Congress could not directly tax citizens). Maryland was the last state to ratify the Articles (1781).
Bill of Rights: Ratified in 1791, the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, the first of which was the right of freedom of speech and the press. This was the most important legacy of the Anti-Federalists.
Black codes: Laws passed by states and cities that restricted the rights of free blacks, such as the right to carry fire arms and the right to purchase slaves.
Bland – Allison Act: An 1878 act of Congress requiring the U.S. Treasury to buy a certain amount of silver and put it into circulation as silver dollars. Though the bill was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes, the Congress overrode Hayes' veto on February 28, 1878 to enact the law.
British Proclamation of 1763: Issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War. It forbade travel west of the Appalachian Mountains. The purpose of the proclamation was to organize Great Britain's new North American empire and to stabilize relations with Native North Americans through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier, yet it was very controversial among Americans.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: In 1831, the Cherokee Nation sought a federal injunction against laws passed by the state of Georgia depriving them of rights within its boundaries, but the Supreme Court did not hear the case on its merits. It ruled that it had no original jurisdiction in the matter, as the Cherokee were a dependent nation, with a relationship to the United States like that of a ward to its guardian.
Chinese Exclusion Act: Suspended Chinese immigration for ten years, limited the civil rights of Chinese, and prevented them from becoming citizens. It was passed as a response to movements protesting “cheap Chinese labor”.
Chisholm v. Georgia: (1793) The Court ruled in favor of the plaintiff and granted federal courts the affirmative power to hear disputes between private citizens and States.
Civil Rights Act of 1875: Passed in 1875, the Act guaranteed that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in "public accommodations". It was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1883.
Compromise of 1850: A compromise driven by Stephen Douglas which admitted California as a free state, allowed New Mexico and Utah to decide slave/free status through popular sovereignty, ended the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and enacted the Fugitive Slave Law.
Compromise of 1877: The settling of the election of 1876 that allowed Rutherford B. Hayes to become president in exchange for the “home rule”, which gave Democrats control of southern state governments.
Compromise Tariff: (Aka The Tariff of 1833) Proposed by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun as a resolution to the Nullification Crisis, it was adopted to gradually reduce the rates after southerners objected to the protectionism found in the Tariff of 1832 and the 1828 Tariff of Abominations, which had prompted South Carolina to threaten secession from the Union.
Cumberland (National Road): One of the first major improved highways in the United States to be built by the federal government. Construction began in 1811 at Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac River, and ended at Vandalia, Illinois.
Declaration of Independence: Drafted by a committee consisting of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston, this document represented America’s decision to be independent of England.
Declaratory Acts: Gave Britain full legal authority over America.
Dred Scott v. Sanford: A Supreme Court decision in which Chief Justice Roger B. Taney held that any black person was not a citizen and dismissed the case when a former slave claimed freedom based on residence in a free territory. The ruling was supported by President Buchanan and outraged northerners.
Emancipation Proclamation: A decree issued by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 that freed all slaves in Confederate states still in rebellion.
Embargo Act: An act put into place by President Jefferson in 1807 in response to the widespread impressment of American sailors into the British navy, and British naval aggression. It forbade ships from entering foreign ports, effectively ending imports and exports. It did not have the desired effect and took a tremendous toll on the American economy.
Freedman’s Bureau: Formed by Congress in 1865, this agency provided food, clothing, and fuel to destitute former slaves.
Freeport Doctrine: A policy stated by Stephen Douglas during the Lincoln-Douglas debates that held that slavery could be suspended in western territories if the people of the territory voted for it. This policy alienated many of Douglas’ southern supporters.
Fugitive Slave Law: A segment of the Compromise of 1850 that required northern authorities to aid in the recapture of escaped slaves.
Gentlemen’s Agreement: An informal agreement between two or more parties. These types of agreements have been reported to be found in every type of industry, and very numerous in the steel and iron industries. (Possibly to avoid anti-trust laws? – my thought)
Gibbons vs. Ogden: Executed under Chief Justice John Marshall in 1824, this case prevented the state of New York from allowing Robert Fulton to obtain a monopoly over the steamboat line, arguing that while he had a federal patent, his invention’s commercial application was not protected by this patent.
Homestead Act: A law passed in 1862 that provided 160 acres of land to any citizen who agreed to live on and improve the land for five years and pay a small fee.
Independent Treasury Act: Passed in 1841, but repealed by the Whigs in 1842 and reinstated again in 1846. The act established the Independent Treasury, which was a system for the retaining of government funds in the United States Treasury and its sub-treasuries, independently of the national banking and financial systems.
Interstate Commerce Act: Passed in 1887, it was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices.
Intolerable Acts: Also known as the Coercive Acts, these were designed to punish Massachusetts for its rebellious behavior (the primary motive was the Boston Tea Party). These acts consisted of the Boston Port Bill, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Quartering Act, the Administration of Justice Act, and the Quebec Act.
Jay’s Treaty: An agreement between the U.S. and Britain that secured the withdrawal of British troops of America, limited trade between the U.S. and the British East and West Indies, and gave each country “most favored nation” status (meaning each state would benefit from trade with the other more than any other nation). This was contested by Jefferson and the Republicans, who advocated for positive relations with France.
Judiciary Act, 1789: Implemented the “judicial clause of the Constitution”, which empowered Congress to set the number of justices (originally 6, later 9) on the Supreme Court and develop a system of federal courts.
Kansas-Nebraska Act: An act introduced by Stephen Douglas that opened the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to popular sovereignty to decide slave or free status.
Land Ordinance, 1785: Provided for the organized survey and sale of western lands. Land was organized into tracts one square mile each called townships. Congress allowed the auction of land, forced Indians off Ohio land so it could be surveyed, and sold 1.5 million acres to the Ohio Company for $1 million (desperate for revenue).
Marbury v. Madison: A court case between Marbury, who had been selected to serve on the Supreme Court at the end of Adams’s term, and Madison, the Secretary of State at the time. The court decided in favor of Madison, but established the policy of judicial review, which holds that the Judicial Branch has the right to declare the constitutionality of laws.
McCulloch v. Maryland: (1819), was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. The state of Maryland had attempted to impede operation branch of the Second Bank of the United States. The Court invoked the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution, which allowed the Federal government to pass laws not expressly provided for in the Constitution's list of express powers.
McKinley Tariff: (Aka Tariff Act of 1890) The tariff raised the average duty on imports to almost fifty percent, an act designed to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.
Military Reconstruction Act: An act passed in 1867 that divided the South into 5 military districts subject to martial law.
Missouri Compromise: A compromise in which Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slaves state with Maine (previously part of Massachusetts) being added as a free state, maintaining the balance of slave and free states.
Monroe Doctrine: A policy founded largely by John Quincy Adams that stated that ended European colonization in the Western Hemisphere in exchange for the promise of the U.S. not to intervene in the affairs of Europe. It was enforced largely by Britain’s Royal Navy in its early years, when the United States navy was weak.
Morrill Land Grant Act: A law passed by Congress in 1862 that gave states public land that could be sold to establish mechanical and agricultural colleges.
Non-intercourse Act, Force Act, Macon’s Bill #2: American laws restricting American ships from engaging in foreign trade, particularly France and Great Britain, between the years of 1807 and 1812. They led to the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.
Northwest Ordinance, 1787: Established a government for the Northwest Territory (current states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin). Slavery was prohibited and Congress appointed a governor with absolute veto power. Arthur St. Clair (the president of the Ohio Company) was appointed as the first governor of the Northwest Territory.
Open Door Policy: A policy, promoted by President McKinley, of seeking equal trade in foreign regions, specifically in reference to China.
Oregon Treaty: A treaty between the United Kingdom and the United States that was signed on June 15, 1846, which brought an end to the Oregon boundary dispute by settling competing American and British claims to the Oregon Country, which had been jointly occupied by both Britain and the U.S. since the Treaty of 1818.
Ostend Manifesto: An attempt by the U.S. under President Pierce to forcibly purchase Cuba from Spain. The negotiation which included threats was leaked to the public, and the proposal was repudiated.
Pendleton Act: Created a commission that oversaw appointments to government positions based on merit, ending the spoils system that currently existed.
Pinckney Treaty: An agreement between the U.S. and New Spain that established a border between the two nations’ property along the 31st parallel. The Federalists forced Congress to accept Jay’s Treaty before this treaty could be ratified in 1796.
Plessy vs. Ferguson: A Supreme Court decision that ruled that segregated trains did not violate the Constitution and upheld the “separate but equal” doctrine.
Protective Tariff: Part of an economic policy of restraining trade between states through taxing imported goods; designed to discourage imports and prevent foreign take-over of domestic markets and companies.
Rush-Bagot Treaty, 1817: An important accomplishment of John Quincy Adams, this treaty demilitarized the Great Lakes by limiting the number of ships each country could station there. It was one of the agreements that helped to set in stone the border between the U.S. and Canada.
Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890: It outlawed restraint to commerce and was aimed at breaking up monopolies in response to Rockefeller. Courts interpreted the act differently from its intent and used it against trade unions.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890: An act that authorized paper currency to be backed by silver mined in the West, which was later opposed and repealed by President Grover Cleveland.
Stamp Act: Passed by Parliament in 1765, this act required the purchase of special embossed paper for official papers, such as newspapers, legal documents, and licenses for people in America. This caused a crisis in America, as high taxes from the British had already reduced many to poverty. It was repealed in 1766 as a result of successful nonimportation campaigns by the Americans.
Stamp Act Congress: A 1765 meeting of delegates from 9 colonies in New York City which agreed that Britain had no right to tax the colonists, arguing that taxation required representation. The delegates also agreed to stop importing goods from Britain until the taxes were repealed, but took a moderate stance and discouraged radicals.
Quartering Act: Passed by Parliament in 1774, this act legalized the housing of troops at public expense.
Sugar Act: Proposed by George Grenville (Chancellor of the Exchequer) and enacted in 1764 by Parliament, this was designed to raise English revenue from America by placing a duty on sugar that was imported into the colonies and further restricting colonial trade.
Tallmadge Amendment: Submitted by James Tallmadge, Jr. in the United States House of Representatives on February 13, 1819, during the debate regarding the admission of Missouri as a state. Tallmadge, an opponent of slavery, sought to impose conditions on Missouri that would extinguish slavery within a generation.
Tariff of Abominations: The 1828 tariff that imposed very high taxes on imported textiles and iron. It was passed by Andrew Jackson’s supporters in Congress to gain northern support, and was vehemently opposed by Southerners, who claimed that it was unconstitutional because it violated the rights of some states.
Tenure of Office Act: An act that stated that any officeholder appointed by the president with the Senate’s consent could not be removed until the Senate approved a successor, effectively protecting Republicans in office.
Townshend Acts: Also known as the Revenue Acts, these acts placed duties on major commodities such as paper, tea, paint, and glass. They were implemented by Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of Exchequer for England, in an attempt to ease the massive debt caused by the Seven Years War.
Treaty of Ghent: The treaty that ended the War of 1812, signed in 1814. The treaty did not address the major issues of British impressments and neutral rights, but the British did agree to evacuate their western posts.
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: An agreement made by Nicholas Trist in which Mexico ceded its northern provinces of New Mexico and California and accepted the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas. The U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million and accept $2 million in claims.
Treaty of Paris, 1763: Signed at the Conclusion of the Seven Years’ War, it forced French to cede all its American possessions to Britain, with the exception of Louisiana, which went to Spain. Spain also ceded Florida to England in exchange for its previous Caribbean possessions.
Trent Affair: (Aka the Mason and Slidell Affair) was an international incident that occurred during the Civil War. On November 8, 1861, the USS San Jacinto intercepted the British mail packet Trent and removed, as contraband of war, two Confederate diplomats, James Mason and John Slidell. The envoys were bound for Great Britain and France to press the Confederacy’s case for diplomatic recognition by Europe.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Authored anonymously by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, these resolutions asserted that the states had the right to nullify any laws they deemed unconstitutional. They were written in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts and were passed by the Virginia and Kentucky legislatures.
Wabash Case: Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Company v. Illinois, (1886), was a Supreme Court decision that severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce. It led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
Wade Davis Bill: A proposal formed by two Radical Republicans that required 50% of citizens of a southern state to swear allegiance before the state could return to the Union and guaranteed legal equality for freed slaves. Lincoln vetoed this bill.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty: Signed August 9, 1842, was a treaty resolving several border issues between the United States and the British North American colonies, particularly a dispute over the location of the Maine–New Brunswick border. It also called for a final end to the slave trade on the high seas, to be enforced by both signatories; and agreed on terms for shared use of the Great Lakes.
Wilmot Proviso: An amendment suggested by David Wilmot in 1846 which stated that slavery should be outlawed in new states. This sparked a slavery crisis and led to sectional politics and the formation of the free-soiler party.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff: (1894) it slightly reduced the United States tariff rates from the numbers set in the 1890 McKinley tariff and imposed a 2% income tax.