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SUMMER WORK
A.P. Economics Important Terms
1. Scarcity- the limited nature of society’s resources
2. Needs/Wants- This are often thought of as a physiological or biological requirement for maintaining life, such as the need for air, water, food, shelter, and sleep. Satisfaction is achieved by fulfilling needs. Physiological needs should be contrasted with psychological wants that make life more enjoyable but are not necessary to stay alive. However, when push comes to shove, and the nitty gets down to the gritty, it matters very little to markets if people need goods or want goods, so long as they are motivated to satisfy them. This motivation is what drives economic activity. This is often thought of as a psychological desire which makes life just a little more enjoyable, but which is not physiological necessary to life. You need oxygen, but you want a hot fudge sundae. Satisfaction is achieved by fulfilling wants.
3. Production Possibilities Curve- A curve that illustrates the production possibilities for the economy. A production possibilities curve (or PPC), like the one presented here, represents the boundary or frontier of the economy's production capabilities. That's why it's also frequently termed a production possibilities frontier (or PPF). As a frontier, it is the maximum production possible given existing (fixed) resources and technology. Producing on the curve means resources are fully employed, while producing inside the curve means resources are unemployed. The law of increasing opportunity cost is what gives the curve its distinctive convex shape.
4. Opportunity Cost- The highest valued alternative foregone in the pursuit of an activity. This is a hallmark of anything dealing with economics--and life for that matter--because any action that you take prevents you from doing something else. The ultimate source of opportunity cost is the pervasive problem of scarcity (unlimited wants and needs, but limited resources). Whenever limited resources are used to satisfy one want or need, there are an unlimited number of other wants and needs that remain unsatisfied. Herein lies the essence of opportunity cost. Doing one thing prevents doing another.
5. Absolute Advantage- The general ability to produced more goods using fewer resources. This idea of absolute advantage is important for trading that occurs between both people and nations. A nation can get an absolute advantage from an advanced level of technology or higher quality resources. For a person, an absolute advantage can result from natural abilities or the acquisition of human capital (education, training, or experience).
6. Comparative Advantage- The ability to produced one good at a relatively lower opportunity cost than other goods. While pointy-headed economists developed this idea for nations, it's extremely important for people. A comparative advantage means that no matter how good (or bad) you are at producing stuff, there's always something that you're best (or least worst) at doing. Moreover, because you can produce this one thing by giving up less than what others give up, you can sell it or trade it to them. This idea of comparative advantage means that people and nations can benefit by specialization and exchange. You do what you do best, then trade to someone else for what they do best. Both sides in this trade get more and are thus better off after than before.
8. A. Market- The organized exchange of commodities (goods, services, or resources) between buyers and sellers within a specific geographic area and during a given period of time. Markets are the exchange between buyers who want a good--the demand-side of the market--and the sellers who have it--the supply--side of the market. In essence, a buyer gives up money and gets a good, while a seller gives up a good and gets money. From a marketing context, in order to be a market the following conditions must exist. The target consumers must have the ability to purchase the goods or services. They must have a need or desire to purchase. The target group must be willing to exchange something of value for the product. Finally, they must have the authority to make the purchase. If all these variables are present, a market exits.
B. Command- A term frequently used when referring to government regulation of pollution emissions
A. Pure Competition- A market characterized by a large number of independent sellers of standardized products, freeflow of information, and free entry and exit. Each seller is a "price taker" rather than a "price maker".
B. Monopolistic Competition- A market structure characterized by a large number of small firms, similar but not identical products sold by all firms, relative freedom of entry into and exit out of the industry, and extensive knowledge of prices and technology. This is one of four basic market structures. The other three are perfect competition, monopoly, and oligopoly. Monopolistic competition approximates most of the characteristics of perfect competition, but falls short of reaching the ideal benchmark that is perfect competition. In fact, the best way to think of monopolistic competition is our imperfect real world's best approximation of perfect competition. It aspires to perfect competition, but doesn't quite make it.
C. Oligopoly- A market structure dominated by a small number of large firms, selling either identical or differentiated products, and significant barriers to entry into the industry. This is one of four basic market structures. The other three are perfect competition, monopoly, and monopolistic competition.
D. Monopoly- A market structure characterized by a single seller of a unique product with no close substitutes. This is one of four basic market structures. The other three are perfect competition, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition. As the single seller of a unique good with no close substitutes, a monopoly firm essentially has no competition. The demand for a monopoly firm's output is THE market demand. This gives the firm extensive market control--the ability to control the price and/or quantity of the good sold--making a monopoly firm a price maker. However, while a monopoly can control the market price, it can not charge more than the maximum demand price that buyers are willing to pay.
11 Supply- The willingness and ability to sell a range of quantities of a good at a range of prices, during a given time period. Supply is one half of the market exchange process; the other is demand. This supply side of the market is directly connected to the limited resources dimension of the scarcity problem. Folks who have ownership and control over resources (labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship) use them to produce the goods and services that satisfy other's wants and needs. Ownership and control of resources is the ultimate source of supply.
12 Demand- The willingness and ability to buy a range of quantities of a good at a range of prices, during a given time period. Demand is one half of the market exchange process; the other is supply. This demand side of the market draws inspiration from the unlimited wants and needs dimension of the scarcity problem. People desire the goods and services that satisfy our wants and needs. This is the ultimate source of demand
13 Quantity Supplied- The specific (maximum) quantity of a good or service that sellers are willing and able to sell at a specific supply price. The emphasis here is on specific. Quantity supplied and supply price form a specific pair of numbers.
14 Quantity Demanded- The specific (maximum) quantity of a good or service that buyers are willing and able to buy at a specific demand price. The emphasis here is on specific. Quantity demanded and demand price form a specific pair of numbers.
15 Determinants of Supply and Demand-
· resource prices
· technology
· other prices
· sellers' expectations
· number of sellers
· income
· preferences
· other prices
· buyers' expectations
· number of buyers
16 Equilibrium Price and Quantity- The price that exists when a market is in equilibrium. In particular, the equilibrium price is the price that equates the quantity demanded and quantity supplied, which is termed the equilibrium quantity. Moreover, the equilibrium price is simultaneously equal to the both the demand price and supply price. In a market graph, like the one displayed here, the equilibrium price is found at the intersection of the demand curve and the supply curve. The equilibrium price is also commonly referred to as the market-clearing price. The quantity exchanged between buyers and sellers when a market is in equilibrium. The equilibrium quantity is simultaneously equal to both the quantity demanded and quantity supplied, which means that there is no shortage nor surplus in the market. This is, in fact, the prime criterion for market equilibrium. If buyers are able to buy all of the good they're willing and able to buy (no shortage) and sellers are able to sell all of the good they're willing and able to sell (no surplus), then neither side of the market is inclined to change the existing terms of trade. And that's equilibrium.
17 Price Elasticity of Demand- The relative response of a change in quantity demanded to a relative change in price. More specifically the price elasticity of demand can be defined as the percentage change in quantity demanded due to a percentage change in demand price. The price elasticity of demand should be compared with the price elasticity of supply.
18 Elastic Demand- Relatively small changes in demand price cause relatively larger changes in quantity demanded. Elastic demand means that changes in the quantity demanded are relatively responsive to changes in the demand price. An elastic demand has a coefficient of elasticity greater than one (the negative value is ignored).
19 Inelastic Demand- Relatively large changes in demand price cause relatively smaller changes in quantity demanded. Inelastic demand means that changes in the quantity demanded are not very responsive to changes in the demand price. An inelastic demand has a coefficient of elasticity less than one (the negative value is ignored)
20 Unit Elastic Demand- An elasticity alternative in which any percentage change in price cause an equal percentage change in quantity. In other words, any change in price, whether big or small, triggers exactly the same percentage change in quantity.
21 Business Cycle
· Peak- The transition of a business cycle from an expansion and a contraction. The end of an expansions carries the descriptive term peak. At the peak, the economy has reached the highest level of production in recent times. The bad thing about a peak, however, is that it is a turning point, a turning point to a contraction. So even though a peak is the "highest" is not necessarily something we want. We would prefer never to reach the peak.
· Recession- The common term used for the contraction phase of the business cycle. A general period of declining economic activity. During a recession, real gross domestic product declines by 10 percent or so and the unemployment rate rises from it's full employment 5 percent level up to the 6 to 10 percent range. Inflation tends to be low or non-existent during a recession. Recession last anywhere from six to eighteen months, with one year being common.
· Trough- The transition of a business cycle from a contraction and an expansion. The end of a contraction carries the descriptive term trough. At the trough, the economy has reached the lowest level of production in recent times. The good thing about a trough, however, is that it is a turning point, a turning point to an expansion. So even though a peak is the "lowest" is not necessarily something that's undesirable.
· Recovery- A early expansionary phase of the business cycle shortly after a contraction has ended, but before a full-blown expansion begins. During a recovery, the unemployment rate remains relatively high, but it is beginning to fall. Real gross domestic product has begun to increase, usually rapidly. However, because the contraction remains fresh in the minds of many, it may not be immediately clear that the trough of the contraction has been reached.
22 Inflation- A persistent increase in the average price level in the economy. Inflation occurs when the AVERAGE price level (that is, prices IN GENERAL) increases over time. This does NOT mean that ALL prices increase the same, nor that ALL prices necessarily increase. Some prices might increase a lot, others a little, and still other prices decrease or remain unchanged. Inflation results when the AVERAGE of these assorted prices follows an upward trend. Inflation is the most common phenomenon associated with the price level.
23 Deflation- An extended decline in the average level of prices. This is the exact opposite of inflation--in which prices are rising over an extended period, and it should be contrasted with disinflation--which is a decline in the inflation rate. Like inflation, deflation occurs when the AVERAGE price level decreases over time. While some prices might decrease, other prices could increase or remain unchanged, so long as the AVERAGE follows a downward trend. Deflation is a rare bird indeed in our economy and typically happens only when we're in a prolonged period of stagnation. We might see some deflation during a fairly lengthy recession, but more than likely deflation saves itself for the occasional depression that dots our economic landscape.
24 Stagflation- High inflation rates at the same time the economy has high unemployment rates. Throughout much of the economic history of the good old U. S. of A., we've seen a tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. During an expansion, inflation is usually higher and unemployment is lower. The opposite has tended to occur during a recession. In the 1970s, however, inflation worsened at the same time the economy dropped into a recession. This led economists not only to coin the term stagflation (stagnation + inflation), but also to reevaluate the existing explanation of how the economy works.
25 Unemployment- The general condition in which resources are willing and able to produce goods and services but are not engaged in productive activities. While unemployment is most commonly thought of in terms of labor, any of the other factors of production (capital, land, and entrepreneurship) can be unemployed as well. The analysis of unemployment, especially labor unemployment, goes hand-in-hand with the study of macroeconomics that emerged from the Great Depression of the 1930s.
26 Economic Growth- The long-run expansion of the economy's ability to produce output. This is one of five economic goals, specifically one of the three macro goals (stability and full employment are the other two). Economic growth is made possible by increasing the quantity or quality of the economy's resources (labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship).
27 Interest Rate- The price of funds expressed as a percentage of the total amount loaned or borrowed. This is the cost of borrowing funds and the payment received for lending. Interest rates are invariably expressed as an annual percentage of the amount borrowed/loaned. A 10 percent interest rate, to run through an easy example, tells us that the cost of borrowing $1,000 for one year is $100.
28 National Income Accounting- The total income earned by the citizens of the national economy as a result of their ownership of resources used in the production of final goods and services during a given period of time, usually one year. This is the government's official measure of how much income is generated by the economy. National income, generally abbreviated as NI, is the broadest, most comprehensive of three income measures reported quarterly (every three months) in the National Income and Product Accounts by the Bureau of Economic Analysis.
29 Gross Domestic Product- The total market value of all goods and services produced within the political boundaries of an economy during a given period of time, usually one year. This is the government's official measure of how much output our economy produces. It's tabulated and reported by the National Income and Product Accounts maintained by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, which is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce. Gross domestic product is one of several measures reported regularly (every three months) by the pointy-headed folks at the Bureau of Economic Analysis.
30 Real GDP- The total market value, measured in constant prices, of all goods and services produced within the political boundaries of an economy during a given period of time, usually one year. The key is that real gross domestic product is measured in constant prices, the prices for a specific base year. Real gross domestic product, also termed constant gross domestic product, adjusts gross domestic product for inflation. You might want to compare real gross domestic product with the related term nominal GDP.
31 Net Domestic Product- The total market value of all final goods and services produced within the political boundaries of an economy during a given period of time, usually a year, after adjusting for the depreciation of capital. Net domestic product, usually abbreviated NDP, is one of five key National Income and Product Accounts measures reported regularly (every three months) by the Bureau of Economic Analysis. The other four measures are gross domestic product, national income, personal income, and disposable income. Net domestic product has largely replaced a comparable term, net national production.
32 Labor Force- The total number of people willing and able to exert mental and/or physical efforts in productive activities. In principle, this is everyone 16 years of age and over who is willing and able to work. In practice, it includes the sum of anyone over 16 years who is employed or unemployed but actively seeking a job. The labor force is essentially a more technical term for the economy's labor supply.
33 Consumer Price Index- An index of prices of goods and services typically purchased by urban consumers. The Consumer Price Index, commonly known by its abbreviation, CPI, is compiled and published monthly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), using price data obtained from an elaborate survey of 25,000 retail outlets and quantity data generated by the Consumer Expenditures Survey. The CPI is unquestionably one of the most widely recognized macroeconomic price indexes, running second only to the Dow Jones averages in the price index popularity contest. It is used not only as an indicator of the price level and inflation, but also to convert nominal economic indicators to real terms and to adjust wage and income payments (such as Social Security) for inflation.
34 Producer Price Index- An index of the prices domestic producers receive from selling their output. THE Producer Price Index, abbreviated PPI, is actually one of several producer price indexes compiled and published monthly by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). THE Producer Price Index reported regularly in the media is actually the Producer Price Index for All Commodities. Other members in the family of producer price indexes include an array of broad, composite indexes (including finished consumer goods, capital goods, and crude materials); indexes that track the prices received by producers in virtually every major production industry in the country (including lumber, iron and steel, household furniture, and passenger cars); and price indexes for thousands of specific products. In total, the producer price index family includes well over 10,000 separate indexes.
35 Full Employment/Natural Rate of Employment- In principle, this is when all of our economy's resources are being used to produce output. This is one of the five economic goals, specifically one of the three macro goals (the other two are economic growth and stability). In practice, our economy is considered to be at full employment when the unemployment rate is around 5 to 5 1/2 percent and the capacity utilization rate is about 85 percent. This unemployment rate includes structural and frictional unemployment. The rate of unemployment that occurs when the economy is at full employment. This rate is primarily composed of frictional and structural unemployment.
36 Frictional Unemployment- Unemployment attributable to the time required to match production activities with qualified resources. Frictional unemployment essentially occurs because resources, especially labor, are in the process of moving from one production activity to another. Employers are seeking workers and workers are seeking employment, the two sides just haven't matched up. Hence unemployment of the frictional variety increases. This mismatch is largely the result of limited information, which is often compounded by geographic separation between producer and resource. Frictional unemployment is one of four unemployment sources.
37 Structural Employment- Unemployment caused by a mismatch between workers' skills and skills needed for available jobs. Structural unemployment essentially occurs because resources, especially labor, are configured (trained) for a given technology but the economy demands goods and services using another technology. Employers seek workers how have one type of skill and workers who seek employment have a different type of skill. This mismatch in skills, which is largely the result of technological progress, creates unemployment of the structural variety. Structural unemployment is one of four unemployment sources
38 Cyclical Unemployment- Unemployment attributable to a general decline in macroeconomic activity, especially expenditures on gross domestic product, that occurs during a business-cycle contraction. When the economy dips into a contraction, or recession, aggregate demand declines, so less output is produced and fewer workers and other resources are employed. Hence unemployment of the cyclical variety increases. Cyclical unemployment is one of four unemployment sources.
39 Seasonal Unemployment- Unemployment is caused by relatively regular and predictable declines in particular industries or occupations over the course of a year, often corresponding with the seasons. Unlike cyclical unemployment, that could occur at any time, seasonal unemployment is an essential part of many jobs. For example, your regular, run-of-the-mill, department store Santa Clause can count on 11 months of unemployment each year. Seasonal unemployment is one of four unemployment sources.
40 GDP Price Deflator- A price index calculated as the ratio nominal gross domestic product to real gross domestic product. Also commonly referred to as the implicit price deflator, the GDP price deflator is used as an indicator of the economy's average price level. This price index is tabulated and reported every three months along with the gross domestic product, national income, and related measures that make up the National Income and Product Accounts maintained by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA). If you haven't guessed already, the GDP part of GDP price deflator stands for gross domestic product.
41 Demand-Pull Inflation- Demand-pull inflation places responsibility for inflation squarely on the shoulders of increases in aggregate demand. This type of inflation results when the four macroeconomic sectors (household, business, government, and foreign) collectively try to purchase more output that the economy is capable of producing. In general, increasing aggregate demand means buyers want more production than the economy is able to provide. Then end result is that buyers bid up the price of existing production. The extra demand "pulls" the price level higher.
42 Cost-Push Inflation- Inflation of the economy's average price level induced by decreases in aggregate supply that result from increases in production cost. This type of inflation occurs when the cost of using any of the four factors of production (labor, capital, land, or entrepreneurship) increases. In general, higher production cost means the economy simply can't continue to supply the same production at the same price level. If buyers want the production, they must pay higher prices. The higher cost "pushes" the price level higher.
43 Adam Smith and the Wealth of the Nations- A Scottish professor (born 1723, died 1790) who is considered the father of modern economics for his revolutionary book, entitled An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nationspublished in 1776.
44 David Ricardo- an English political economist, often credited with systematising economics, and was one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill.[1] He was also a member of Parliament, businessman, financier and speculator, who amassed a considerable personal fortune. Perhaps his most important contribution was the law of comparative advantage, a fundamental argument in favour of free trade among countries and of specialisation among individuals. Ricardo argued that there is mutual benefit from trade (or exchange) even if one party (e.g. resource-rich country, highly-skilled artisan) is more productive in every possible area than its trading counterpart (e.g. resource-poor country, unskilled laborer), as long as each concentrates on the activities where it has a relative productivity advantage.
45 John Maynard Keyes and The General Theory- A British economist (born 1883, died 1946) who is most noted for his work The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, published 1936. The The General Theoryrevolutionized economic theory of the day, forming the foundation of Keynesian economics and creating the modern study of macroeconomics. Keynes was a well-known and highly respected economist prior to publication of The General Theory, however, this revolutionary work guaranteed Keynes a place as one of the most influential economists of all time.
46 Jean Baptiste Say- a French economist and businessman. He had classically liberal views and argued in favour of competition, free trade, and lifting restraints on business. He is best known due to Say's Law, which is named after him and at times credited to him
47 Aggregate Demand- The total (or aggregate) real expenditures on final goods and services produced in the domestic economy that buyers would willing and able to make at different price levels, during a given time period (usually a year). Aggregate demand (AD) is one half of the aggregate market analysis; the other half is aggregate supply. Aggregate demand, relates the economy's price level, measured by the GDP price deflator, and aggregate expenditures on domestic production, measured by real gross domestic product. The aggregate expenditures are consumption, investment, government purchases, and net exports made by the four macroeconomic sectors (household, business, government, and foreign).
48 Aggregate Supply-The total (or aggregate) real production of final goods and services available in the domestic economy at a range of price levels, during a given time period. Aggregate supply (AS) is one half of the aggregate market analysis; the other half is aggregate demand. Aggregate supply, relates the economy's price level, measured by the GDP price deflator, and aggregate domestic production, measured by real gross domestic product. The aggregate supply relation is generally separated into long-run aggregate supply, in which all prices and wages and flexible and all markets are in equilibrium, and short-run aggregate supply, in which some prices and wage are NOT flexible and some markets are NOT in equilibrium.
49 Real Balance Effect- The net ownership of material possessions and productive resources. In other words, the difference between physical and financial assets that you own and the liabilities that you owe. Wealth includes all of the tangible consumer stuff that you possess, like cars, houses, clothes, jewelry, etc.; any financial assets, like stocks, bonds, bank accounts, that you lay claim to; and your ownership of resources, including labor, capital, and natural resources. Of course, you must deduct any debts you owe
50 Interest Rate Effect- A change in aggregate expenditures on real production, especially those made by the household and business sectors, that results because a change in the price level alters the interest rate which then affects the cost of borrowing. This is one of three effects underlying the negative slope of the aggregate demand curve associated with a movement along the aggregate demand curve and a change in aggregate expenditures.
51 Net Export Effect- The difference between exports, goods and services produced by the domestic economy and purchased by the foreign sector, and imports, goods and services produced by the foreign sector and purchased by the domestic economy. While exports and imports important unto themselves, when combined into a single measure net exports captures the overall interaction between the foreign sector and the domestic economy. Arithmetically speaking, if exports exceed imports, then net exports are positive, and if imports exceed exports, the net exports are negative.
52 Productivity- the ratio of the quantity and quality of units produced to the labor per unit of time
53 Ratchet Effect- an instance of the restrained ability of human processes to be reversed once certain things have happened, analogous with the mechanical ratchet that holds the spring tight as a clock is wound up. It is related to the phenomena of featuritis and scope creep in the manufacture of various consumer goods, and of mission creep in military planning.
54 Spending Multiplier- multiplier effect or spending multiplier is the idea that an initial amount of spending (usually by the government) leads to increased consumption spending and so results in an increase in national income greater than the initial amount of spending
55 Fiscal Policy- Use of the federal government's powers of spending and taxation to stabilize the business cycle. If the economy is mired in a recession, then the appropriate fiscal policy is to increase spending or reduce taxes--termed expansionary policy. During periods of high inflation, the opposite actions are needed--contractionary policy. The consequences of fiscal policy are typically observed in terms of the federal deficit.
56 Expansionary Fiscal Policy- A form of stabilization policy consisting of an increase in government spending and/or a decrease in taxes. This policy is designed to avoid or correct the problems associated with a business cycle contraction.
57 Contractionary Fiscal Policy- A form of stabilization policy consisting of a decrease in government spending and/or an increase in taxes. This policy is designed to avoid or correct the problems associated with a business-cycle expansion that gets out of hand and causes inflation.
58 Keynesian Theory/Demand-Side Economics-A theory of macroeconomics developed by John Maynard Keynes built on the proposition that aggregate demand is the primary source of business cycle instability, especially recessions. The basic structure of the Keynesian theory of economics was initially presented in Keynes' book The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936).
59 Sticky Prices and Wages- The proposition that some prices adjust slowly in response to market shortages or surpluses. This condition is most important for macroeconomic activity in the short run and short-run aggregate market analysis. In particular, sticky (also termed rigid or inflexible) prices are a key reason underlying the positive slope of the short-run aggregate supply curve. Prices tend to be the most sticky in resource markets, especially labor markets, and the least sticky in financial markets, with product markets falling somewhere in between. The proposition that some wages adjust slowly in response to labor market shortages or surpluses. This condition is most important for macroeconomic activity in the short run and short-run aggregate market analysis. In particular, sticky (also termed rigid or inflexible) wages are a key reason underlying the positive slope of the short-run aggregate supply curve.
60 Automatic Stabilizers- A feature of the federal government's budget that tends to reduce the ups and downs of the business cycle without the need for any special legislative action, that is stabilization policies. The two key automatic stabilizers are income taxes and transfer payments. When our economy drops into a recession, unemployment rises, aggregate output declines, and people have less income. But with less income, they pay fewer income taxes, and thus there's less of a drain on consumption than their might have been. Likewise, many who are unemployed get transfer payments in the form of unemployment compensation, welfare, or Social Security. This lets them consume more than they would have otherwise. During an expansion, both of these go in the other direction. As a result, a recession sees more spending and fewer taxes, while an expansion has less spending and more taxes, all occurring quite automatically.
61 Classical Theory/Supply-Side Economics- A branch of economics that emphasizes the productive capabilities of resources, especially in the context of macroeconomic instability and economic growth. Supply-side economics became popular in the 1980s after several decades of Keynesian "demand-side" economics. Supply-side proponents contended that policies aimed at the demand-side alone, especially fiscal policies, was causing economic stagnation. One note result of supply-side economics was the developed of the aggregate market, which combined existing demand-side economics with the newly emerging focus on the supply-side.
62 Supply Shocks- A disruption of market equilibrium (that is, a market adjustment) caused by a change in a supply determinant and a shift of the supply curve. A supply shock can take one of two forms--an supply increase or a supply decrease. An increase in supply is illustrated by a rightward shift of the supply curve and results in an increase in equilibrium quantity and a decrease in equilibrium price. A decrease in supply is illustrated by a leftward shift of the supply curve and results in a decrease in equilibrium quantity and an increase in equilibrium price.
63 Rational Expectations Theory- a theory in economics that the sum of all decisions of all individuals and organizations, filtered through an endogenous set of market institutions, is not systematically wrong. A better term for it, with fewer wrong connotations, is model-consistent expectations.
64 Phillips Curve Explanation- the Phillips curve is a historical inverse relationship between the rate of unemployment and the rate of inflation in an economy. Stated simply, the lower the unemployment in an economy, the higher the rate of increase in nominal wages.
65 Laffer Curve- The graphical inverted-U relation between tax rates and total tax collections by government. Developed by economist Arthur Laffer, the Laffer curve formed a key theoretical foundation for supply-side economics of President Reagan during the 1980s. It is based on the notion that government collects zero revenue if the tax rate is 0% and if the tax rate is 100%. At a 100% tax rate no one has the incentive to work, produce, and earn income, so there is no income to tax. As such, the optimum tax rate, in which government revenue is maximized, lies somewhere between 0% and 100%. This generates a curve shaped like and inverted U, rising from zero to a peak, then falling back to zero. If the economy is operating to the right of the peak, then government revenue can be increased by decreasing the tax rate. This was used to justify supply-side economic policies during the Reagan Administration, especially the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (Kemp-Roth Act).
66 Lorenz Curve- In general, a diagram illustrating the degree of inequality and concentration for a group. This is accomplished by plotting the cumulative percentage of a total amount obtained by cumulative percentages of the group. A common use of the Lorenz curve is the distribution of income, in which the cumulative percentage of income is measured on the vertical axis and the cumulative percentage of the population is measured on the horizontal axis. Perfect equality is indicated by a 45-degree line (that is, 10% of the population has 10% of the income, 20% of the population has 20% of the income, etc.). The actual Lorenz curve inevitably lies below the 45-degree line. The extent that the Lorenz curve differs from the 45-degree line indicates the extent of inequality.
67 Crowding-Out Effect- A decline in investment caused by expansionary fiscal policy. When government counteracts a recession with an increase in spending or a reduction in taxes (both resulting in an increase in the federal deficit) interest rates tend to increase. Higher interest rates then inhibit business investment in capital goods. Some pointy-headed economists argue that investment crowding out completely offsets any intended expansionary policy, but the jury's still out on this one. To the extend that crowding out occurs, economic growth is reduced if (and this is an important if) government has not seen fit to offset the loss in business investment with public investment in infrastructure, education, or other growth promoting expenditures.
68 Equation of Exchange(MV=PQ)- An equation that specifies the relation between the money supply, the velocity of money, the price level, and real production. The equation is stated as M*V = P*Q, where M is the money supply, V is the velocity, P is the price level, and Q is real production. This equation is a key component of the quantity theory of money, which offers an explanation between the money supply and inflation.
69 Budget Deficit- An excess of budgetary expenditures over revenues. The federal government is well known for its inclination to operate with a budget deficit. But it is not alone. Consumers also find themselves in this position on many occasions. When a budget deficit occurs, the excess spending is financed through borrowing. For the federal government this involves issuing government securities. For households it typically involves some sort of bank loan, credit card purchase, use of savings (borrowing from thyself), or hitting a friend up for a few bucks.
70 Budget Surplus- An excess of budgetary revenues over expenditures. This seemingly rare event is in fact commonly practiced by many state and local governments -- albeit often because of constitutional mandates. The federal government has even accomplished this feat once or twice. Consumers operate a budget surplus whenever they're able to put a little bit of their income into saving.
72 Tariff- A tax that's usually on imports, but occasionally (very rarely) on exports. This is one form of trade barrier that's intended to restrict imports into a country. Unlike nontariff barriers and quotas which increase prices and thus revenue received by domestic producers, a tariff generates revenue for the government. Most pointy-headed economists who spend their waking hours pondering the plight of foreign trade contend that the best way to restrict trade, if that's what you want to do, is through a tariff.
73 QUOTA- A limit on the quantity of some sort of activity. Two of the more noted quotas are for employment and imports. Employment quotas have been used as a means of providing increased opportunities to blacks, hispanics, women, and other groups that have been historically subject to discrimination. Such quotas, however, tend to anger other groups, especially white males, who don't get favorable treatment. While employment or similar anti-discrimination quota systems might help address historical problems, they are not without cost. In particular, our economy's efficiency is likely to suffer if a less qualified member of an ethnic group is selected over someone who is more qualified. Import quotas have similar problems. They are one form of trade barriers that's usually intended to reduce the competition faced by a domestic producer.
74 Embargo- In general, any sort of restriction on foreign trade, in practice, the restriction of exports destined for sale in another country. Unlike tariffs, import quotas, and other nontariff barriers that protect domestic producers from competition, embargoes are intended to punish the export destination country. One of the more famous embargoes in recent decades was the oil embargo that several middle-eastern countries imposed on the United States in the 1970s. This caused higher gasoline prices in the United States, created all sorts of havoc for our economy, and pretty much achieved the punishment objective. The United States is also prone to throw up an embargo here or there when another country acts against our political wishes.
75 Balance of Trade- The difference between funds received by a country when exporting merchandise and the funds paid for importing merchandise. The balance of trade is a major part of the current accounts portion of the balance of payments. A balance of trade surplus results if exports exceed imports, commonly termed a favorable balance of trade, and a balance of trade deficit exists if imports exceed exports, analogously termed an unfavorable balance of trade. The "favorable" and "unfavorable" normative connotations attached to the balance of trade rests with the presumption that a nation is "better off" when it exports more than it imports, which is not necessarily true.
76 Trade Deficit- Formally termed a balance of trade deficit, a condition in which a nation's imports are greater than exports. In other words, a country is buying more stuff for foreigners than foreigners are buying from domestic producers. A trade deficit is usually thought to be bad for a country. For this reason, some countries seek to reduce their trade deficit by--(1) establishing trade barriers on imports, (2) reducing the exchange rate (termed devaluation) such that exports are less expensive and imports more expensive, or (3) invading foreign countries with sizable armies.
77 Trade Surplus- Formally termed a balance of trade surplus, a condition in which a nation's exports are greater than imports. In other words, a country is buying less stuff from foreigners than foreigners are buying from domestic producers. A trade surplus is usually thought to be a good thing for a country. However, every country in the world cannot run a trade surplus at the same time. Excessive trade surpluses can also lead to invasion by sizable foreign armies.
78 Dumping- Selling the same good to a foreign country at a lower price, often below production cost, than that charged to the domestic buyers. Dumping usually occurs because -- (1) producers in one country are trying to stay competitive with producers in another country, (2) producers in one country are trying to eliminate the producers in another country and gain a larger share of the world market, (3) producers are trying to get rid of excess stuff that they can't sell in their own country, (4) producers can make more profit by dividing sales into domestic and foreign markets, then charging each market whatever price the buyers are willing to pay.
79 Exchange Rates- The price of one nation's currency in terms of another nation's currency. This is often called the foreign exchange rate in that it is the price determined in the foreign exchange market when people buy and sell foreign exchange. The exchange rate is specified as the amount of one currency that can be traded per unit of another.
80 Depreciation- A more or less permanent decrease in value or price. "More or less permanent" doesn't include temporary, short-term drops in price that are common in many markets. It's only those price declines that reflect a reduction in consumer satisfaction. While all sorts of stuff can depreciate in value, some of the more common ones are capital, real estate, corporate stock, and money. The depreciation of capital results from the rigors of production and affects our economy's ability to produce stuff. A sizable portion of our annual investment is thus needed to replace depreciated capital. The depreciation of a nation's money is seen as an increase in the exchange rate. This process is described in detail in the entry on the J curve.
81 Appreciation- A more or less permanent increase in value or price. "More or less permanent" doesn't include temporary, short-term jumps in price that are common in many markets. Appreciation is only those price increases that reflect greater consumer satisfaction and thus value. While all sorts of stuff can appreciate in value, some of the more common ones are real estate, works of art, corporate stock, and money. In particular, the appreciation of a nation's money is seen by an increase in the exchange rate caused by a growing, expanding, and healthy economy.
82 World Trade Organization(WTO)- The abbreviation for World Trade Organization, which is an international organization that oversees multilateral trade among nations. The WTO was established in 1995 by the Uruguay round of trade negotiations to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that had been in place for the preceding five decades. The WTO administers multilateral trade agreements, provides a forum for trade negotiations, handles trade disputes, monitors national trade policies, and provides technical assistance and training for developing countries. The WTO has about 150 member countries.
83 North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA)- An abbreviation for the North American Free Trade Agreement, which is an economic, international trade treaty between the three nations that occupy the North American continent -- Canada, Mexico, and the United States -- that was launch in 1994. The North American Free Trade Agreement is designed to eliminate assorted trade barriers between Canada, Mexico, and the United States, including the reduction or elimination of many tariffs and nontariff barriers. While economic theory clearly indicates efficiency is enhanced by the reduction and elimination trade restrictions, NAFTA has been strongly opposed by those potentially harmed by more efficient trade, especially labor unions. However, NAFTA is merely one of several international trade agreements created over the years to reduce trade restrictions. Others include the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Maastricht Treaty.
84 European Union- The common abbreviation of the Economic Union, which is the economical and political integration of a dozen European nations created by the Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992. The twelve nations forming the European Union are Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Germany, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, and Great Britain. Three additional nations that have joined the original dozen are Austria, Finland and Sweden. The Economic Union was actually one of several steps by European nations after the end of World War II to promote integration. This Economic Union was established to reduce or eliminate many tariffs and nontariff barriers, create of single monetary unit (the euro), establish of a common military and defense policy, and centralize monetary policy.
85 Balance of Payments- The difference between the funds received by a country and those paid by a country for all international transactions. The international transactions include the exchange of merchandise (exports and imports), which is commonly summarized as the balance of trade, plus the exchange of services, summarized as the balance of services, as well as any gifts or transfer payments that do not involve the exchange of goods and services. The balance of payments, in effect, indicates the difference between currency coming into a country and that flowing out of the country. The balance of payments is divided into two accounts -- current account (which includes payments for imports, exports, services, and transfers) and capital account (which includes payments for physical and financial assets).
86 International Monetary Fund(IMF)- An agency of the United Nations established in 1945 to monitor and stabilize foreign exchange markets. Close to 150 of the world's nations (which is just about all of them) belong to the IMF. The IMF was set up to keep countries from manipulating their exchange rates in such a way as to gain a competitive trading advantage over others. Their strategies of control have changed over the decades, but they currently use a managed float where exchange rates are allowed to fluctuate with changing market conditions, but only within certain ranges. The IMF also plays an active role in providing the "international" currency needed to participate in foreign trade through its system of Special Drawing Rights.
87 Devaluation- The act of reducing the price (exchange rate) of one nation's currency in terms of other currencies. This is usually done by a government to lower the price of the country's exports and raise the price of foreign imports, which ultimately results in greater domestic production. The short- and long-run consequences of devaluation are described in the entry on the J curve. A government devalues its currency by actively selling it and buying foreign currencies through the foreign exchange market.
88 Capital Account- One of two parts of a nation's balance of payments. The capital is a record of all purchases of physical and financial assets between a nation and the rest of the world in a given period, usually one year. On one side of the balance of payments ledger account are all of the foreign assets purchase by our domestic economy. On the other side of the ledger are all of our domestic assets purchased by foreign countries. The capital account is said to have a surplus if a nation's investments abroad are greater than foreign investments at home. In other words, if the good old U. S. of A. is buying up more assets in Mexico, Brazil, and Hungry, than Japanese, Germany, and Canada investors are buying up of good old U. S. assets, then we have a surplus. A deficit is the reverse.
89 Subsidies- A payment from government to individuals or businesses without any expectations of production. The best way of thinking about a subsidy is as a negative tax. Government extends subsidies for many different reasons. They go to students, unemployed workers, the poor, farmers, wealthy friends of political leaders, businesses trying to fend off foreign competitors, and the list could go on. Subsidies are frequently used to redirect resources from one good to another. Sometimes this is justified on efficiency grounds and other times it's just the result of political power.
90 Imports- Goods and services produced by the foreign sector and purchased by the domestic economy. In other words, imports are goods purchased from other countries. The United States, for example, buys a lot of the stuff produced within the boundaries of other countries, including bananas, coffee, cars, chocolate, computers, and, well, a lot of other products. Imports, together with exports, are the essence of foreign trade--goods and services that are traded among the citizens of different nations. Imports and exports are frequently combined into a single term, net exports (exports minus imports).
91 Exports- The sale of goods to a foreign country. The United States, for example, sells a lot of the stuff produced within our boundaries to other countries, including wheat, beef, cars, furniture, and, well, almost every variety of product you care to name. In general, domestic producers (and their workers) are elated with the prospect of selling their goods to foreign countries--leading to more buyers, a higher price, and more profit. The higher price, however, is bad for domestic consumers. In that domestic consumers tend to have far less political clout than producers, very few criticisms of exports can be heard. On the positive side, though, exports do tend to add to the multiplicative, cumulatively reinforcing expansion of production and income (that is, the multiplier).
Part II
A. Scarcity is the limitation of resources. When there is a very few amounts of products the need and the amount that product is purchased in might be higher. While there is high demand, but there is low demand.
B. Economics is the branch of social science that deals with the production and distribution and consumption of goods and services and their management. The more scarce the product in the economic market the cost of it will cost higher due to the limited amount of the product.
C. See page 1 for graph. The circular flow model demonstrates how goods and services flow in exchange. In the model the households work and spend money. The firms provide goods and some firms supply other firms. The government provide goods and services, but transfer payments. Banks take savings and lend for necessary spending. The circular flow model is an interconnected economy. Money is a key factor in this model. Also the banks and the government allow for this complex economy.
D. The relationship between the productions possibility curve and opportunity cost is the sacrifice in order to produce the first good over the second. The harsh decrease in the curve shows that if one item’s production is drastically decreased the other product is magnificently increased. In this situation the opportunity curve is great.
E. When the demand curve shifts to the right the quantity is higher and the price decreases.
F. Microeconomics is the study of decisions that people and businesses make regarding the allocation of resources and prices of goods and services. This means also taking into account taxes and regulations created by governments. Microeconomics focuses on supply and demand and other forces that determine the price levels seen in the economy. For example, microeconomics would look at how a specific company could maximize it's production and capacity so it could lower prices and better compete in its industry. Macroeconomics, on the other hand, is the field of economics that studies the behavior of the economy as a whole and not just on specific companies, but entire industries and economies. This looks at economy-wide phenomena, such as Gross National Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. For example, macroeconomics would look at how an increase/decrease in net exports would affect a nation's capital account or how GDP would be affected by unemployment rate.
G. The components of GDP are consumption, investment, net exports, government purchases, and inventories. The expenditure approach to GDP is C + I + G + (X-M)
H. Products that are counted one time in their life is counted in GDP. Things that are not counted in GDP are current transactions involving assets and properties produced in previous periods are not counted in the current GD. Also government social security and welfare payments, current exchanges in stock and bonds, and changes in the values of financial assets.
I. To measure inflation a number of goods that are representative of the economy are put together into what is referred to as a "market basket." The cost of this basket is then compared over time. The three indexes used to measure inflation are price, consumer, and producer price.
J. See graph
K. More inflation would mean less unemployment and more unemployment would mean less inflation. This relates to the business cycle in that the curves would indicate one of the factors if inflation was high then it would be on top of the curve and if unemployment was high then inflation would be lower on the curve.
L. See graph
M. See graph
N. Adam Smith’s thinking was the basis of classical economics. He was the one to believe that government should be heavily involved. The government should enforce business agreements. Smith had heavily opposed the idea of mercantilism and he wanted more free trade.
O. David Ricardo was a very important figure to the study of the economy. Ricardo was the one to create the Classical Economy. Ricardo had set forth on two ideas which were technical progression and foreign trade. He believed that these two ideas would create growth. Jean B. Say was the founder .of the say law which states the notion that commodities are produced as a means to acquire other commodities
P. Karl Marx was a Germanphilosopher, , sociologist, communist, and revolutionary, whose ideas played a significant role in the development of modern communism and socialism. Marx’s most important contribution to the economic theory was that of surplus value created by the labourer.
Q. John M. Keynes was a Britisheconomist whose ideas have profoundly affected the theory and practice of modern macroeconomics, as well as the economic policies of governments. One of his main contributions was the Keynesian theory. Keynes is considered the father of economics.
R. The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the United States; incorporates 12 Federal Reserve branch banks and all national banks and state-chartered commercial banks and some trust companies; "the Fed seeks to control the United States economy by raising and lowering short-term interest rates and the money supply "Fed's operations would be financed from its own resources .The Fed regularly reports to Congress about its activities and plans for monetary policy. Although Congress has the power to change the laws governing the Fed and its operations, the central bank's day-to-day policy and operational decisions do not require Congressional or Presidential approval.
S. Monetary policy is the strategic actions taken by the Federal Reserve to influence the supply of money and credit in order to foster price stability and maintain maximum sustainable economic growth. Through these actions, the Fed helps keep our national economy strong and the world economy stable.
T. Money serves as amedium of exchange, as a store of value, and as a unit ofaccount. Money itself does not have any value and it also remains neutral.
U. In economics, fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure and revenue collection to influence the economy. The President, Congress, and the Budget Office (OMB). Federal taxes and other forms of government income, budgeting, and spending carry out the fiscal policy. The advantage of the fiscal policy is it might create growth in the future also it will solve short term political problems. It would decrease unemployment and help fight inflation. Another benefit would be that the trade deficit may decrease. The n disadvantages are that the budget worsens also it hurts the country’s ability to borrow money in the future. Another disadvantage would be that trade deficits may increase. Lastly it slows economic growth.
Free Response
A. If the price level increased the demand and quantity will also increase. Also the real output would increase. If corporate profit taxes decreased then there would be lower demand also a lower price will be there and the quantity would also decrease.
B. If corporate profit taxes decreased then the Aggregate demand would sharply decrease. Also the supply would decrease. The real output would decrease and the price level of materials would decrease.
2001 A. The quantity increases then the equilibrium price level increases. Since no one purchases products there is too much quantity thus increasing the price sharply and the gdp decreases.
B. If the people’s income taxes are lower then they will be able to purchase more thus increasing price and quantity. Also the demand will increase. Since there are more people. Thus the GDP will be better increased.
C. With lower personal income tax the consumption would increase. Also the demand increase and the quantity increases also with quantity. More demand in exports in and imports.
A. Everything will shift to the right and the price level also the output level would go up. More money more demand thus everything is in the positive direction.
Without Japan importing may materials would be left over out price would be up and the quantity would be very also high. The demand would sharply decline.